Mosawweri

Muslims have traditionally refrained from sculpting idols and depicting living beings, yet they have always regarded the art of painting as a source of delight and an accessible medium for conveying meaning. Consequently, they did not merely practice this art in a limited capacity; rather, they elevated it to the pinnacle of perfection. The Muslim aesthetic perspective has always stood supreme above the rest of the world.

During the early Islamic period, under the Umayyad caliphs, the Islamic empire expanded through various conquests. It was during this era that Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan issued his own coinage to replace Sassanid and Byzantine currency. These coins bore his portrait, a measure deemed politically expedient at the time. According to Ibn Sa'd, the author of *Tabaqat*, the seal of Qazi Shurayh featured two poetic couplets with a tree engraved in the center. In this early period, purely for aesthetic pleasure and delight, textiles and vessels were adorned with multicolored designs. Today, by studying the decorative arts of that era, we can reconstruct the civilization and lifestyle of those times.

Muslims even coined specific names for these decorated objects based on their aesthetic characteristics. For instance, *Mirt Murahhal* referred to a shawl adorned with stylized human figures, while terms like *Shajraf* and *Sijlat* were used for shawls featuring motifs of trees and ornaments. Palaces, too, were named according to their aesthetic ambiance and decorative frescoes. When Muslims built their first mosque in the city of Fazdin during the early period, they utilized pillars with capitals bearing the motifs of oxen. Because of this distinct aesthetic feature, it was named *Masjid-e-Saur*, or the Mosque of the Oxen.

Muslims also recognized the aesthetic impact of such beautiful environments as a therapeutic cure for psychological distress, a fact supported by ample historical evidence. For example, Hakim Badr al-Din Qazi Baalbaki notes in his book *Mufarrih al-Nafs* (The Gladdener of the Soul) that the physicians, philosophers, and scholars of his time unanimously agreed that gazing upon beautiful and delicate forms brings a profound sense of joy and delight to the soul, dispelling melancholic ailments and troubling thoughts. This is why, when public bathhouses (*hammams*) were constructed in the Middle East, their walls were adorned with delicate frescoes. These walls frequently featured romantic vistas, beautiful portraits, and scenes of hunting wild beasts.

Hakim Razi wrote that if painted figures are rendered with a strict regard for proportion and scale, using visually pleasing colors such as red, green, yellow, and white, they will undoubtedly prove beneficial. They will dispel all anxieties and sorrows, creating a profound sense of happiness, for the human soul derives immense pleasure from gazing upon such beautiful forms.

Our aesthetic history of painting is deeply fascinating, and our art of painting constitutes a vital chapter of our culture. Here, we will briefly outline the major aesthetic achievements of Muslims in the realm of art, a tradition that is widely referred to in Europe today as miniature painting.

By the first century of the Hijri calendar, Muslims had conquered the entire Middle East, the Near East, and Central Asia. When Ziyad ibn Salih, the commander of the Muslim armies, conquered Samarkand in the year 58, several Chinese soldiers were taken as prisoners of war. Among them were individuals skilled in the art of papermaking. An Arab named Yusuf ibn Amr learned this craft from them, and the resulting product came to be known in Mecca as *Qirtas*. From that point onward, manuscripts began to be transcribed on paper.

Naturally, the foremost priority for Muslims was the preservation of the Holy Quran, which was an integral part of their faith. The sacred text was not merely transcribed; it was intricately illuminated and ornamented, serving as clear evidence of the Muslim passion for the visual arts. Consequently, when Ibn Maryam documented the early scribes of the Holy Quran, he also recorded the names of those who illuminated the manuscripts with gold. Among these, figures such as Ibrahim al-Saghir, Abu Musa ibn Ammar al-Qatni, and Muhammad ibn Muhammad Abu Abdullah al-Ghazai achieved great renown. Most of these artisans were *Hafiz* (those who had memorized the Quran), and they viewed the transcription, ornamentation, and gilding of the holy text as a spiritual provision for the Hereafter. It was for this reason that they dedicated their hearts and minds to this work with such profound devotion.

From an aesthetic standpoint, Muslims cultivated a distinct excellence in this style of ornamentation, which is universally recognized in Europe today as the Arabesque, and is regarded as an undeniable innovation in the world of art. Shortly after this period, a new era dawned in which Muslims turned their attention toward illustrating their scholarly texts to enhance their utility, realizing that without visual aids, comprehending these works could be somewhat difficult.

Although the depiction of living beings is traditionally viewed as an un-Islamic practice, its necessity was acutely felt in the academic realm. Consequently, books on medicine, geography, phonetics, mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, and music were authored, and their manuscripts were produced featuring exquisite illustrations and masterful bookbinding—a truly monumental achievement. If we examine any book from that era pertaining to these sciences, the mind is left astounded by the heights to which Muslims had elevated this art during such an early period. The immense utility of these manuscripts stands as an undisputed triumph, while the sight of their illustrated pages profoundly enhances their aesthetic value.

In the field of Arabian medicine, the illustrated manuscripts of *Kitab al-Ayn* (The Book of the Eye) by Hasan ibn Ishaq (d. 298 AH) are specifically highlighted and considered to be of immense importance. Similarly, in the martial arts and military sciences, the illustrated manuscript of *Kitab al-Amtsaq fi al-Majanin* holds significant historical value. The purpose of citing these two examples is to demonstrate that, in order to maximize the utility and significance of such scholarly works, illustrating them was not merely essential; rather, comprehending the texts without these visual aids would have been exceedingly difficult.

The tradition of illustrating books of literature and fables had already begun in the early Islamic era, though the oldest surviving manuscripts we possess largely date back to the sixth and seventh centuries of the Hijri calendar. Coincidentally, an illustrated manuscript of the *Qabus Nama* was recently discovered in America through an antiquities dealer, which the present writer has personally examined. Originally, Qabus ibn Vushmgir authored this work in the tenth century CE as a book of moral advice and counsel. However, opinions remain divided regarding the authenticity of this particular illustrated manuscript—whether it is genuine or a forgery. Thus far, the prevailing consensus leans toward it being a forgery. Nevertheless, the manuscript bears the date of 413 AH, and its vibrant, colorful illustrations are certainly worthy of study. In my own estimation, the manuscript is undoubtedly highly suspicious.

During the Abbasid era in Baghdad, the arts and sciences flourished immensely. It was here that scholarly and literary masterpieces such as *Alf Layla* (One Thousand and One Nights) and *Kalila wa Dimna* were illustrated, and these are now considered great monuments of that age. However, illustrated manuscripts of *Kalila wa Dimna* are no longer extant. In the Khedivial Library of Egypt, there is an illustrated manuscript of the famous Arabic work *Kitab al-Aghani*, whose aesthetic beauty reflects the zenith of Arab culture and art. By a happy coincidence, a few folios of *Alf Layla* were also displayed at the 1914 Munich exhibition in Germany. These included an illustration of the clock that Harun al-Rashid had sent as a gift to Charles V. The folios also featured scenes of the bazaars of that era, along with some highly important records pertaining to the science of music.

Since *Kalila wa Dimna*—the result of Abdullah bin Muqaffa's efforts—is generally considered an adaptation of the Indian book *Hitopadesha*, great attention was paid to illustrating it. One of its manuscripts was displayed at an exhibition in Paris in 1914. Dated to 632 AH, it featured these very illustrations. However, a study of the artwork revealed that it belonged more closely to the Iraqi school of painting. Another illustrated manuscript in Paris appeared to date back to 733 AH and was produced in Baghdad. During this same period, illustrated manuscripts of *Maqamat al-Hariri* were also prepared; because these books were regularly taught in Islamic schools, illustrations made them much quicker to comprehend. Furthermore, readers could derive immense aesthetic pleasure from the visual beauty of these books.

Consequently, many illustrated manuscripts of these works are preserved in European libraries—such as the British Museum in London, the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and in Vienna—which I have personally examined. The Paris manuscript was transcribed and illustrated by Amin Mahmud al-Wasiti and completed in 634 AH, whereas the London manuscript, dated 723 AH, was illustrated by Abu al-Fadl bin Abi Ishaq. All three of these manuscripts belong purely to the Iraqi school of painting, showing absolutely no Chinese or Iranian influence. Similarly, an illustrated manuscript of Rashid al-Din's *Majma al-Tawarikh*, dated 755 AH, is housed in the Edinburgh University Library and contains numerous paintings. However, illustrated manuscripts from the same period, which should be considered somewhat an extension of this work, are located in India at the Asiatic Society of Bengal Library and the Rampur Library, both of which I have also seen.

These illustrations clearly depict a Central Asian environment. For this reason, we classify their style as the Central Asian school of painting, and these works also exhibit a certain degree of Chinese influence. In Central Asia, Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh* introduced a new epic dimension to Islamic painting, and artists have illustrated it in every era. This book, a golden scholarly achievement from the reign of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi, has always remained a center of creative inspiration for painters. The reason is that artists found within it the kind of dramatic events they rely on to make the act of illustration easier; it provided them with ready-made themes. Secondly, it serves as an outstanding specimen of Iranian culture—it is, in essence, the illustrated history of the Iranian nation.

It must be acknowledged that alongside the evolving standards of painting, our aesthetic viewpoint also continued to develop. Thus, by the end of the eighth century AH, the arts had progressed significantly. In Iranian painting particularly, artists turned their attention beyond Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh* to illustrate the works of other master poets. Among these, the collected works (*Kulliyat*) of Nizami and Khwaju Kermani are especially noteworthy. By illustrating these texts, Iranian painters established a unique aesthetic distinction for Muslims in the eyes of the world. In these works, we see a greater prominence of trees, mountains, and natural landscapes; the Central Asian environment is manifest in its fullest form.

By this time, Baghdad was no longer the center of the art of painting, and regions like Tabriz and Samarkand had emerged as much larger hubs. The Timurid conquests once again shifted the central patronage of the arts and sciences from Samarkand, relocating it to Shiraz, Baghdad, and Herat during the reign of Timur's son, Shah Rukh Mirza. Herat remained the capital of the Timurid princes until the very end. Here, such masterpieces of painting were produced that the world has no parallel for them. But before we detail the achievements of this era, it is appropriate to specifically mention a particular manuscript of Khwaju Kermani's *Kulliyat*, which, by a happy coincidence, is currently housed in the British Museum in London.

This manuscript was transcribed in 798 AH by the renowned Mir Ali Tabrizi, who is generally credited as the inventor of the Nasta'liq script. It was illustrated by Junayd Naqqash, who signed his work with the words Junayd Naqqash Sultani, indicating that he was attached to the court of the Jalayirid Sultan Ahmad in Baghdad. This painter was a protégé of Ustad Shams al-Din, who served as a painter for Sultan Uways Jalayir. Another of his apprentices was Ustad Abd al-Hayy. The aesthetic quality of the paintings from this era is evident in their colors and varieties of attire, but it is most clearly seen in the ornamentation of doors and walls. For example, in Khwaju's *Humay and Humayun*, we observe a wedding scene where royal majesty, splendor, and revelry are fully captured. These illustrations feature high-quality motifs that serve as living proof of the culture of that time. In these figures, the beauty of arrangement, the uniformity of vision, and the theatrical staging of the scenes reveal the distinct characteristics of Iranian taste and its evolutionary art.

As mentioned above, Herat had achieved the status of a central hub in the era of painting. In 876 AH, Sultan Husayn Bayqara of the House of Timur ascended the throne. A great patron of the arts and sciences, Mir Ali Shir Nava'i, served as his chief minister. His court boasted poets like Maulana Nur al-Din Abd al-Rahman Jami, art experts like Maulana Taba'i, calligraphers like Maulana Sultan Ali Mashhadi (known as Qibla al-Kuttab, the Qibla of Calligraphers), and master painters like Ustad Kamal al-Din Behzad. Never before in history had such experts and leading figures of their respective fields gathered in one place. Through their mutual collaboration, these unique scholars of the age accomplished feats that will forever remain memorable in the history of arts and sciences. In his childhood, Behzad received his training from Ustad Sayyid Ruhullah Mirak Naqqash, who was a special pupil of Maulana Wahi Allah. Behzad was born in Herat in 844 AH and was raised there. Until his time, Chinese influences were still present in Iranian painting, but Behzad was the singular artist who eliminated this influence, rendering Iranian painting purely indigenous.

Behzad and his pupils—among whom Aqa Mirak, Qasim Ali, and Rustam Ali are particularly noteworthy—established a new school of Iranian painting. Countless works by Behzad are worthy of being detailed and admired individually, but here I will limit myself merely to a manuscript of Saadi's *Gulistan*. By a happy coincidence, this manuscript is preserved in the Egyptian National Library (Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya), where I had the opportunity to view it last year. It was transcribed by Sultan Ali, completed by Shams al-Din Katib, and Behzad himself created every single one of its illustrations.

In these paintings, Behzad has depicted the famous tale of Yusuf and Zulaikha. A close observation of this artwork reveals that Behzad has painted all the curtains and windows of the palace in such a way that each element stands out distinctly, while two souls are seen wandering within. A common criticism leveled against Eastern painting is that, unlike European art, it fails to clearly depict physical volume and proportion. However, in this painting, the physical forms are remarkably distinct. Similarly, by depicting two camels fighting, Behzad has brilliantly captured the true nature and temperament of the animal.

Following the era of Sultan Husayn Bayqara, the Hanafis came to power, and the seat of government shifted from Herat to Tabriz. The Hanafis also achieved great feats in their patronage of the arts and sciences. Ismail Sufi took Behzad with him to Tabriz, where he appointed him as the director of the library and placed all the painters under his supervision. Behzad passed away in 942 AH, living a long life of nearly a hundred years. The chronogram of his death is derived from the phrase *Khak-e-Qabr-e-Behzad* (The Dust of Behzad's Grave). At the time of his passing, Iranian painting was at its absolute zenith, and the credit for this monumental achievement rests entirely with Behzad.

During this same period in Ferghana, Zahir-ud-Din Babur, a descendant of Timur, emerged on the historical stage. Compelled by circumstances, he turned his attention toward India, where in 934 AH, he dealt a crushing defeat to Ibrahim Lodhi on the battlefield of Panipat, thereby laying the foundation of the Mughal Empire. Emperor Babur was as much a man of letters as he was a warrior. Consequently, he chronicled his own life in the *Tuzk* (memoirs). A manuscript of this work was completed in 937 AH, the very year he passed away and was succeeded by his son, Nasir-ud-Din Humayun. This complete manuscript of the *Tuzk*, prepared during that time, was beautifully illustrated and, by a stroke of good fortune, is preserved today in the state of Alwar.

Subsequently, Humayun, too, was driven by adverse circumstances to seek refuge in Iran, where he spent his days of hardship at the court of Shah Tahmasp Safavi. When fortune finally favored him, he returned to India, bringing along a retinue of Iranian artists. Notable among them were Khwaja Abdus Samad Shirin Qalam and Mir Sayyid Ali Tabrizi, who had achieved mastery in painting by following the traditions of Behzad. Their greatest accomplishment was the illustration of the *Dastan-e-Amir Hamza* (The Epic of Amir Hamza). Humayun himself had learned the art of painting from them and had appointed them to teach painting to his son, Akbar. Humayun might have lived a while longer, but it was his son, Jalal-ud-Din Akbar, who succeeded his father in 923 AH.

Akbar was barely fourteen years old when the Timurid crown was placed upon his head. His guardians and mentors were Munim Khan and Bairam Khan, who focused their efforts on consolidating his empire. Had it not been for them, Akbar’s young shoulders could never have borne the immense burden of governance alone. They took their master’s responsibilities upon themselves. Once freed from his early military campaigns, Akbar immediately turned his attention to the arts and sciences. From a young age, he had a deep fondness for painting and listening to stories. Meanwhile, Mir Sayyid Ali Tabrizi and Khwaja Abdus Samad Shirin Qalam continued their artistic endeavors. Although they were somewhat disheartened at first, the young emperor’s keen interest in their craft lifted their spirits. With great enthusiasm, they illustrated the *Dastan-e-Amir Hamza*, the complete details of which are recorded in the historical chronicles of that era. Furthermore, in Akbar’s academy of painting, alongside these two Iranian masters, several Hindu painters also enrolled as apprentices.

Nature had endowed Akbar with a flawless ability to truly appreciate and derive pleasure from aesthetic experiences. Furthermore, his approach to religious matters and state affairs was exceptionally broad-minded. Through this inclusive attitude, he had won over every community from a very young age, and the Rajputs, in particular, grew very close to him. In his art academy, people from all walks of life worked together harmoniously. Abu'l-Fazl writes of a certain Hindu painter who was the son of a *kahar* (palanquin bearer). Akbar spotted him with his far-sighted aesthetic vision when the boy was just a child, scribbling and drawing on a wall as children often do. Yet, Akbar’s keen eye for talent immediately recognized that this boy possessed the innate potential to become a master painter.

Consequently, the emperor entrusted him to the care of Khwaja Abdus Samad. Under his tutelage, the boy emerged as an unparalleled artist. However, he became so consumed by his innate passion for painting that he lost his mental balance in his youth and met an early end. His surviving works stand as a testament to his extraordinary artistic genius. Akbar’s passion for painting was so profound that he commissioned these artists to paint murals on the walls of Fatehpur Sikri, the traces of which survive to this day. Moreover, Akbar was so deeply moved by the aesthetic dimensions of painting that he constantly sought to prove, through logical argument, that painting was not contrary to Islamic teachings. Instead, he argued that just as there are various paths to attaining divine knowledge (*Ma'rifat-e-Ilahi*), painting is also one of them.

Thus, on one occasion, while addressing his courtiers in a private assembly, he remarked that many people condemn the profession of painting, a view he found unacceptable. In his opinion, a painter is far ahead of others in the realization of God. When an artist paints an animal, meticulously drawing each distinct part, yet finds himself utterly powerless to breathe life into the body, he is inevitably drawn toward the True Creator. Through the realization of his own helplessness, the artist attains divine knowledge. In other words, painting serves as a medium to recognize Allah as the sole Creator.

Under his royal patronage, in addition to the *Dastan-e-Amir Hamza*, Akbar commissioned the Persian translation and illustration of various Sanskrit texts, many of which survive as illuminated manuscripts today. He also commissioned illustrations for other prominent works, such as the *Baburnama* and *Anwar-e-Suhaili*. Among the nobility of that era, Abdur Rahim Khan-e-Khanan deserves special mention. He had established a dedicated department in his own household for the production of calligraphic and illustrated manuscripts. Numerous artists were employed under him, with Mian Qadeem and Abdur Rahim Ambarin Qalam being particularly noteworthy.

Following Akbar, the reins of the empire passed to his son, Jahangir. Raised in the cradle of knowledge and art, he had harbored a deep passion for painting since his days as a prince. Agha Raza Herati remained in his service at all times. Jahangir was an aesthete and a true connoisseur of beauty and elegance. Though he was not a painter himself, he was a formidable art critic with a profound aesthetic sensibility, capable of expertly distinguishing the good from the bad on purely technical grounds. Such was the sharpness of his eye and his critical acumen that if a single painting were a collaborative effort by several court artists, he could accurately identify which specific part was painted by which artist. He has explicitly documented this extraordinary ability himself in his *Tuzk* (memoirs).

He had a deep affinity for the Iranian school of painting; not only did he greatly admire many of their works, but he also had copies made of them. On one occasion, he sent one of his painters, Bishan Das, to Iran alongside the ambassador Khan Aali. Bishan Das returned with a wealth of knowledge. Deeply impressed by the masterpieces of his court painters, Jahangir also bestowed titles upon them. For instance, he conferred the title of *Nadir-uz-Zaman* (Wonder of the Age) upon Abul Hasan Syed Agha Raza, and the title of *Nadir-ul-Asr* (Miracle of the Age) upon another painter who possessed exceptional mastery in depicting animals. Furthermore, artists like Farrukh Beg Qalmaq, Nadir Samarqandi, Muhammad Murad, Hashim, and Manohar produced outstanding work in his court. The emperor frequently honored and encouraged them with rewards and bounties, and in return, they painted with exquisite skill, perfectly capturing their master's vision at his slightest gesture. The painting of this era displays a heightened sense of romanticism, alongside a growing inclination toward natural landscapes.

Jahangir’s album (*muraqqa*) is frequently mentioned. The author has personally seen the majority of it in Berlin, as well as in the possession of a prominent Parsi nobleman, Mr. Ardeshir, in Poona. During this period, significant attention was ultimately directed toward the portraiture of the nobility—a trend that reached its absolute zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan. However, it must be noted that Jahangir also took a keen interest in European painting. This is corroborated by the accounts of the British ambassador of the time, Sir Thomas Roe, who described how he presented European artworks to the emperor. Jahangir then had his own court painters create reproductions of these works, the influence of which can still be seen in the tile mosaics (*kashi-kari*) on the northern wall of the Lahore Fort.

In short, the distinction between the painting styles of Akbar’s and Jahangir’s eras perfectly mirrors the differences in their personal circumstances and temperaments. Following Jahangir, however, the reign of Shah Jahan marked the absolute pinnacle of prosperity and glory for the Mughal Empire. Like his ancestors, he possessed a profound devotion to the fine arts, which is most evidently manifested in his architecture. He created a masterpiece like the Taj Mahal, which is counted among the Seven Wonders of the World. Having closely observed the eras of Akbar and Jahangir, he was well-versed in their artistic traditions. Furthermore, he had at his disposal masterful painters such as Manohar, Samarqandi, Anup Chatar, and Hashim. Beyond depicting nature, he was particularly fond of visual marvels and dazzling artistry. These painters compiled exquisite albums, in which the portraits of the court's nobility held a place of prominence. Consequently, among the paintings of Shah Jahan’s era, scenes depicting his coronation and the formal presentation of court nobles are of immense historical and artistic significance.

Ultimately, the painting of this era allows us to fully gauge the aesthetic sensibilities of the time. His son, Dara Shikoh, also harbored a special passion for painting. Much like Akbar, he was deeply receptive to syncretic trends across various spheres of life—be it religion and politics, knowledge and philosophy, or the highest forms of art—all of which were intrinsically tied to his aesthetic sensibilities. A testament to his refined taste is the album bearing his name, currently housed in the India Office in London, which he had lovingly gifted to his favorite wife, Nadira Begum. However, fate did not decree for Shah Jahan’s eldest son, Dara Shikoh, to be his successor. As circumstances unfolded, Aurangzeb emerged victorious and claimed the throne—a ruler who had absolutely no interest in painting.

He did, however, commission certain court painters to create essential portraits for political purposes to keep abreast of situations; these included portraits of his own son, Muhammad Sultan. In its own way, this too represents an aesthetic dimension of painting. Aurangzeb achieved mastery in calligraphy, and in the realm of architecture, he made his mark by commissioning the grand mosque in Lahore, which was the largest mosque in the world. In fact, it would be fair to say that during Aurangzeb’s reign, the fine arts were liberated from the constraints of the royal court, allowing artists to work according to their own individual styles. The arts transitioned out of an aristocratic environment and took on a more individualized, almost democratic character. After Aurangzeb, the art of painting assumed an entirely new form, yet in terms of sheer artistic technique, its quality remained undiminished.

Muslims have traditionally refrained from sculpting idols and depicting living beings, yet they have always regarded the art of painting as a source of delight and an accessible medium for conveying meaning. Consequently, they did not merely practice this art in a limited capacity; rather, they elevated it to the pinnacle of perfection. The Muslim aesthetic perspective has always stood supreme above the rest of the world.

During the early Islamic period, under the Umayyad caliphs, the Islamic empire expanded through various conquests. It was during this era that Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan issued his own coinage to replace Sassanid and Byzantine currency. These coins bore his portrait, a measure deemed politically expedient at the time. According to Ibn Sa'd, the author of *Tabaqat*, the seal of Qazi Shurayh featured two poetic couplets with a tree engraved in the center. In this early period, purely for aesthetic pleasure and delight, textiles and vessels were adorned with multicolored designs. Today, by studying the decorative arts of that era, we can reconstruct the civilization and lifestyle of those times.

Muslims even coined specific names for these decorated objects based on their aesthetic characteristics. For instance, *Mirt Murahhal* referred to a shawl adorned with stylized human figures, while terms like *Shajraf* and *Sijlat* were used for shawls featuring motifs of trees and ornaments. Palaces, too, were named according to their aesthetic ambiance and decorative frescoes. When Muslims built their first mosque in the city of Fazdin during the early period, they utilized pillars with capitals bearing the motifs of oxen. Because of this distinct aesthetic feature, it was named *Masjid-e-Saur*, or the Mosque of the Oxen.

Muslims also recognized the aesthetic impact of such beautiful environments as a therapeutic cure for psychological distress, a fact supported by ample historical evidence. For example, Hakim Badr al-Din Qazi Baalbaki notes in his book *Mufarrih al-Nafs* (The Gladdener of the Soul) that the physicians, philosophers, and scholars of his time unanimously agreed that gazing upon beautiful and delicate forms brings a profound sense of joy and delight to the soul, dispelling melancholic ailments and troubling thoughts. This is why, when public bathhouses (*hammams*) were constructed in the Middle East, their walls were adorned with delicate frescoes. These walls frequently featured romantic vistas, beautiful portraits, and scenes of hunting wild beasts.

Hakim Razi wrote that if painted figures are rendered with a strict regard for proportion and scale, using visually pleasing colors such as red, green, yellow, and white, they will undoubtedly prove beneficial. They will dispel all anxieties and sorrows, creating a profound sense of happiness, for the human soul derives immense pleasure from gazing upon such beautiful forms.

Our aesthetic history of painting is deeply fascinating, and our art of painting constitutes a vital chapter of our culture. Here, we will briefly outline the major aesthetic achievements of Muslims in the realm of art, a tradition that is widely referred to in Europe today as miniature painting.

By the first century of the Hijri calendar, Muslims had conquered the entire Middle East, the Near East, and Central Asia. When Ziyad ibn Salih, the commander of the Muslim armies, conquered Samarkand in the year 58, several Chinese soldiers were taken as prisoners of war. Among them were individuals skilled in the art of papermaking. An Arab named Yusuf ibn Amr learned this craft from them, and the resulting product came to be known in Mecca as *Qirtas*. From that point onward, manuscripts began to be transcribed on paper.

Naturally, the foremost priority for Muslims was the preservation of the Holy Quran, which was an integral part of their faith. The sacred text was not merely transcribed; it was intricately illuminated and ornamented, serving as clear evidence of the Muslim passion for the visual arts. Consequently, when Ibn Maryam documented the early scribes of the Holy Quran, he also recorded the names of those who illuminated the manuscripts with gold. Among these, figures such as Ibrahim al-Saghir, Abu Musa ibn Ammar al-Qatni, and Muhammad ibn Muhammad Abu Abdullah al-Ghazai achieved great renown. Most of these artisans were *Hafiz* (those who had memorized the Quran), and they viewed the transcription, ornamentation, and gilding of the holy text as a spiritual provision for the Hereafter. It was for this reason that they dedicated their hearts and minds to this work with such profound devotion.

From an aesthetic standpoint, Muslims cultivated a distinct excellence in this style of ornamentation, which is universally recognized in Europe today as the Arabesque, and is regarded as an undeniable innovation in the world of art. Shortly after this period, a new era dawned in which Muslims turned their attention toward illustrating their scholarly texts to enhance their utility, realizing that without visual aids, comprehending these works could be somewhat difficult.

Although the depiction of living beings is traditionally viewed as an un-Islamic practice, its necessity was acutely felt in the academic realm. Consequently, books on medicine, geography, phonetics, mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, and music were authored, and their manuscripts were produced featuring exquisite illustrations and masterful bookbinding—a truly monumental achievement. If we examine any book from that era pertaining to these sciences, the mind is left astounded by the heights to which Muslims had elevated this art during such an early period. The immense utility of these manuscripts stands as an undisputed triumph, while the sight of their illustrated pages profoundly enhances their aesthetic value.

In the field of Arabian medicine, the illustrated manuscripts of *Kitab al-Ayn* (The Book of the Eye) by Hasan ibn Ishaq (d. 298 AH) are specifically highlighted and considered to be of immense importance. Similarly, in the martial arts and military sciences, the illustrated manuscript of *Kitab al-Amtsaq fi al-Majanin* holds significant historical value. The purpose of citing these two examples is to demonstrate that, in order to maximize the utility and significance of such scholarly works, illustrating them was not merely essential; rather, comprehending the texts without these visual aids would have been exceedingly difficult.

The tradition of illustrating books of literature and fables had already begun in the early Islamic era, though the oldest surviving manuscripts we possess largely date back to the sixth and seventh centuries of the Hijri calendar. Coincidentally, an illustrated manuscript of the *Qabus Nama* was recently discovered in America through an antiquities dealer, which the present writer has personally examined. Originally, Qabus ibn Vushmgir authored this work in the tenth century CE as a book of moral advice and counsel. However, opinions remain divided regarding the authenticity of this particular illustrated manuscript—whether it is genuine or a forgery. Thus far, the prevailing consensus leans toward it being a forgery. Nevertheless, the manuscript bears the date of 413 AH, and its vibrant, colorful illustrations are certainly worthy of study. In my own estimation, the manuscript is undoubtedly highly suspicious.

During the Abbasid era in Baghdad, the arts and sciences flourished immensely. It was here that scholarly and literary masterpieces such as *Alf Layla* (One Thousand and One Nights) and *Kalila wa Dimna* were illustrated, and these are now considered great monuments of that age. However, illustrated manuscripts of *Kalila wa Dimna* are no longer extant. In the Khedivial Library of Egypt, there is an illustrated manuscript of the famous Arabic work *Kitab al-Aghani*, whose aesthetic beauty reflects the zenith of Arab culture and art. By a happy coincidence, a few folios of *Alf Layla* were also displayed at the 1914 Munich exhibition in Germany. These included an illustration of the clock that Harun al-Rashid had sent as a gift to Charles V. The folios also featured scenes of the bazaars of that era, along with some highly important records pertaining to the science of music.

Since *Kalila wa Dimna*—the result of Abdullah bin Muqaffa's efforts—is generally considered an adaptation of the Indian book *Hitopadesha*, great attention was paid to illustrating it. One of its manuscripts was displayed at an exhibition in Paris in 1914. Dated to 632 AH, it featured these very illustrations. However, a study of the artwork revealed that it belonged more closely to the Iraqi school of painting. Another illustrated manuscript in Paris appeared to date back to 733 AH and was produced in Baghdad. During this same period, illustrated manuscripts of *Maqamat al-Hariri* were also prepared; because these books were regularly taught in Islamic schools, illustrations made them much quicker to comprehend. Furthermore, readers could derive immense aesthetic pleasure from the visual beauty of these books.

Consequently, many illustrated manuscripts of these works are preserved in European libraries—such as the British Museum in London, the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and in Vienna—which I have personally examined. The Paris manuscript was transcribed and illustrated by Amin Mahmud al-Wasiti and completed in 634 AH, whereas the London manuscript, dated 723 AH, was illustrated by Abu al-Fadl bin Abi Ishaq. All three of these manuscripts belong purely to the Iraqi school of painting, showing absolutely no Chinese or Iranian influence. Similarly, an illustrated manuscript of Rashid al-Din's *Majma al-Tawarikh*, dated 755 AH, is housed in the Edinburgh University Library and contains numerous paintings. However, illustrated manuscripts from the same period, which should be considered somewhat an extension of this work, are located in India at the Asiatic Society of Bengal Library and the Rampur Library, both of which I have also seen.

These illustrations clearly depict a Central Asian environment. For this reason, we classify their style as the Central Asian school of painting, and these works also exhibit a certain degree of Chinese influence. In Central Asia, Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh* introduced a new epic dimension to Islamic painting, and artists have illustrated it in every era. This book, a golden scholarly achievement from the reign of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi, has always remained a center of creative inspiration for painters. The reason is that artists found within it the kind of dramatic events they rely on to make the act of illustration easier; it provided them with ready-made themes. Secondly, it serves as an outstanding specimen of Iranian culture—it is, in essence, the illustrated history of the Iranian nation.

It must be acknowledged that alongside the evolving standards of painting, our aesthetic viewpoint also continued to develop. Thus, by the end of the eighth century AH, the arts had progressed significantly. In Iranian painting particularly, artists turned their attention beyond Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh* to illustrate the works of other master poets. Among these, the collected works (*Kulliyat*) of Nizami and Khwaju Kermani are especially noteworthy. By illustrating these texts, Iranian painters established a unique aesthetic distinction for Muslims in the eyes of the world. In these works, we see a greater prominence of trees, mountains, and natural landscapes; the Central Asian environment is manifest in its fullest form.

By this time, Baghdad was no longer the center of the art of painting, and regions like Tabriz and Samarkand had emerged as much larger hubs. The Timurid conquests once again shifted the central patronage of the arts and sciences from Samarkand, relocating it to Shiraz, Baghdad, and Herat during the reign of Timur's son, Shah Rukh Mirza. Herat remained the capital of the Timurid princes until the very end. Here, such masterpieces of painting were produced that the world has no parallel for them. But before we detail the achievements of this era, it is appropriate to specifically mention a particular manuscript of Khwaju Kermani's *Kulliyat*, which, by a happy coincidence, is currently housed in the British Museum in London.

This manuscript was transcribed in 798 AH by the renowned Mir Ali Tabrizi, who is generally credited as the inventor of the Nasta'liq script. It was illustrated by Junayd Naqqash, who signed his work with the words Junayd Naqqash Sultani, indicating that he was attached to the court of the Jalayirid Sultan Ahmad in Baghdad. This painter was a protégé of Ustad Shams al-Din, who served as a painter for Sultan Uways Jalayir. Another of his apprentices was Ustad Abd al-Hayy. The aesthetic quality of the paintings from this era is evident in their colors and varieties of attire, but it is most clearly seen in the ornamentation of doors and walls. For example, in Khwaju's *Humay and Humayun*, we observe a wedding scene where royal majesty, splendor, and revelry are fully captured. These illustrations feature high-quality motifs that serve as living proof of the culture of that time. In these figures, the beauty of arrangement, the uniformity of vision, and the theatrical staging of the scenes reveal the distinct characteristics of Iranian taste and its evolutionary art.

As mentioned above, Herat had achieved the status of a central hub in the era of painting. In 876 AH, Sultan Husayn Bayqara of the House of Timur ascended the throne. A great patron of the arts and sciences, Mir Ali Shir Nava'i, served as his chief minister. His court boasted poets like Maulana Nur al-Din Abd al-Rahman Jami, art experts like Maulana Taba'i, calligraphers like Maulana Sultan Ali Mashhadi (known as Qibla al-Kuttab, the Qibla of Calligraphers), and master painters like Ustad Kamal al-Din Behzad. Never before in history had such experts and leading figures of their respective fields gathered in one place. Through their mutual collaboration, these unique scholars of the age accomplished feats that will forever remain memorable in the history of arts and sciences. In his childhood, Behzad received his training from Ustad Sayyid Ruhullah Mirak Naqqash, who was a special pupil of Maulana Wahi Allah. Behzad was born in Herat in 844 AH and was raised there. Until his time, Chinese influences were still present in Iranian painting, but Behzad was the singular artist who eliminated this influence, rendering Iranian painting purely indigenous.

Behzad and his pupils—among whom Aqa Mirak, Qasim Ali, and Rustam Ali are particularly noteworthy—established a new school of Iranian painting. Countless works by Behzad are worthy of being detailed and admired individually, but here I will limit myself merely to a manuscript of Saadi's *Gulistan*. By a happy coincidence, this manuscript is preserved in the Egyptian National Library (Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya), where I had the opportunity to view it last year. It was transcribed by Sultan Ali, completed by Shams al-Din Katib, and Behzad himself created every single one of its illustrations.

In these paintings, Behzad has depicted the famous tale of Yusuf and Zulaikha. A close observation of this artwork reveals that Behzad has painted all the curtains and windows of the palace in such a way that each element stands out distinctly, while two souls are seen wandering within. A common criticism leveled against Eastern painting is that, unlike European art, it fails to clearly depict physical volume and proportion. However, in this painting, the physical forms are remarkably distinct. Similarly, by depicting two camels fighting, Behzad has brilliantly captured the true nature and temperament of the animal.

Following the era of Sultan Husayn Bayqara, the Hanafis came to power, and the seat of government shifted from Herat to Tabriz. The Hanafis also achieved great feats in their patronage of the arts and sciences. Ismail Sufi took Behzad with him to Tabriz, where he appointed him as the director of the library and placed all the painters under his supervision. Behzad passed away in 942 AH, living a long life of nearly a hundred years. The chronogram of his death is derived from the phrase *Khak-e-Qabr-e-Behzad* (The Dust of Behzad's Grave). At the time of his passing, Iranian painting was at its absolute zenith, and the credit for this monumental achievement rests entirely with Behzad.

During this same period in Ferghana, Zahir-ud-Din Babur, a descendant of Timur, emerged on the historical stage. Compelled by circumstances, he turned his attention toward India, where in 934 AH, he dealt a crushing defeat to Ibrahim Lodhi on the battlefield of Panipat, thereby laying the foundation of the Mughal Empire. Emperor Babur was as much a man of letters as he was a warrior. Consequently, he chronicled his own life in the *Tuzk* (memoirs). A manuscript of this work was completed in 937 AH, the very year he passed away and was succeeded by his son, Nasir-ud-Din Humayun. This complete manuscript of the *Tuzk*, prepared during that time, was beautifully illustrated and, by a stroke of good fortune, is preserved today in the state of Alwar.

Subsequently, Humayun, too, was driven by adverse circumstances to seek refuge in Iran, where he spent his days of hardship at the court of Shah Tahmasp Safavi. When fortune finally favored him, he returned to India, bringing along a retinue of Iranian artists. Notable among them were Khwaja Abdus Samad Shirin Qalam and Mir Sayyid Ali Tabrizi, who had achieved mastery in painting by following the traditions of Behzad. Their greatest accomplishment was the illustration of the *Dastan-e-Amir Hamza* (The Epic of Amir Hamza). Humayun himself had learned the art of painting from them and had appointed them to teach painting to his son, Akbar. Humayun might have lived a while longer, but it was his son, Jalal-ud-Din Akbar, who succeeded his father in 923 AH.

Akbar was barely fourteen years old when the Timurid crown was placed upon his head. His guardians and mentors were Munim Khan and Bairam Khan, who focused their efforts on consolidating his empire. Had it not been for them, Akbar’s young shoulders could never have borne the immense burden of governance alone. They took their master’s responsibilities upon themselves. Once freed from his early military campaigns, Akbar immediately turned his attention to the arts and sciences. From a young age, he had a deep fondness for painting and listening to stories. Meanwhile, Mir Sayyid Ali Tabrizi and Khwaja Abdus Samad Shirin Qalam continued their artistic endeavors. Although they were somewhat disheartened at first, the young emperor’s keen interest in their craft lifted their spirits. With great enthusiasm, they illustrated the *Dastan-e-Amir Hamza*, the complete details of which are recorded in the historical chronicles of that era. Furthermore, in Akbar’s academy of painting, alongside these two Iranian masters, several Hindu painters also enrolled as apprentices.

Nature had endowed Akbar with a flawless ability to truly appreciate and derive pleasure from aesthetic experiences. Furthermore, his approach to religious matters and state affairs was exceptionally broad-minded. Through this inclusive attitude, he had won over every community from a very young age, and the Rajputs, in particular, grew very close to him. In his art academy, people from all walks of life worked together harmoniously. Abu'l-Fazl writes of a certain Hindu painter who was the son of a *kahar* (palanquin bearer). Akbar spotted him with his far-sighted aesthetic vision when the boy was just a child, scribbling and drawing on a wall as children often do. Yet, Akbar’s keen eye for talent immediately recognized that this boy possessed the innate potential to become a master painter.

Consequently, the emperor entrusted him to the care of Khwaja Abdus Samad. Under his tutelage, the boy emerged as an unparalleled artist. However, he became so consumed by his innate passion for painting that he lost his mental balance in his youth and met an early end. His surviving works stand as a testament to his extraordinary artistic genius. Akbar’s passion for painting was so profound that he commissioned these artists to paint murals on the walls of Fatehpur Sikri, the traces of which survive to this day. Moreover, Akbar was so deeply moved by the aesthetic dimensions of painting that he constantly sought to prove, through logical argument, that painting was not contrary to Islamic teachings. Instead, he argued that just as there are various paths to attaining divine knowledge (*Ma'rifat-e-Ilahi*), painting is also one of them.

Thus, on one occasion, while addressing his courtiers in a private assembly, he remarked that many people condemn the profession of painting, a view he found unacceptable. In his opinion, a painter is far ahead of others in the realization of God. When an artist paints an animal, meticulously drawing each distinct part, yet finds himself utterly powerless to breathe life into the body, he is inevitably drawn toward the True Creator. Through the realization of his own helplessness, the artist attains divine knowledge. In other words, painting serves as a medium to recognize Allah as the sole Creator.

Under his royal patronage, in addition to the *Dastan-e-Amir Hamza*, Akbar commissioned the Persian translation and illustration of various Sanskrit texts, many of which survive as illuminated manuscripts today. He also commissioned illustrations for other prominent works, such as the *Baburnama* and *Anwar-e-Suhaili*. Among the nobility of that era, Abdur Rahim Khan-e-Khanan deserves special mention. He had established a dedicated department in his own household for the production of calligraphic and illustrated manuscripts. Numerous artists were employed under him, with Mian Qadeem and Abdur Rahim Ambarin Qalam being particularly noteworthy.