Talmeehaat

They are the sounds through which we express our thoughts or point to objects. Primitive societies in the world that lack words use gestures with their hands, feet, and eyes to communicate their thoughts or indicate objects. If you were to observe them while they are trying to express themselves, you would be utterly amazed by the strange movements they make and the immense difficulties they face in conveying what is in their hearts. When human intellect advanced and words were invented, these difficulties vanished. A specific sound began to signify a specific thought, object, or action, and everyone began to understand this reference. This era of human progress was incredibly important, as it laid the foundation stone of language.

**What is meant by allusion and terminology?**

In the early stages of language, words were created to express brief, simple thoughts and ordinary objects. Gradually, humanity took further steps in its development. Specific words began to be used as references to lengthy stories, events, and circumstances. The moment these words were spoken, the stories or events they referred to immediately materialized before the mind's eye. Every such reference is called an allusion. Later, specific words were also designated to explain academic problems or principles. Each of these words is called a terminology.

The advanced languages of the world possess allusions and terminologies in abundance. Separate dictionaries have been compiled for allusions and terminologies, detailing the explanation of each one. These allusions and terminologies have saved us from the time wasted in repeatedly explaining long tales, stories, academic issues, and principles.

Those individuals who, when coining terminologies, insist that every technical term must convey its complete meaning, are gravely mistaken. There is no terminology in the world that conveys its entire meaning and makes the whole academic problem or principle for which it was coined completely understandable on its own. These individuals wish to retreat from the path of linguistic progress and return to a stage where it was necessary to repeatedly state the entire academic problem or principle, wasting an immense amount of time with each repetition. It is precisely to avoid this waste of time that these references, known as terminologies, were invented. They are an invention of a time when, alongside the advancement of human intellect, language too had reached the heights of development.

The case of allusions is identical to that of terminologies. Merely saying Noah's Flood brings before the eyes all the cataclysmic events that occurred during the time of Prophet Noah. The moment the phrase Israfil's Trumpet is uttered, all the terrifying events that will unfold at the onset of the Day of Judgment begin to swirl in the mind. The first of these references recalls a horrifying scene of past events. The second brings a dreadful vision of future events before the eyes. The words designated for these references do not, by any means, convey the complete meaning of those past and future events.

Eloquence means conveying the maximum possible meaning through the fewest possible words. This quality is found in allusions to a degree unmatched by any other category of words. A language that has few or no allusions has fallen from the standard of eloquence. Speakers, writers, and poets of such languages must waste a great deal of time to convey their meanings. Listeners grow weary of hearing the same event described over and over again. If that event is expressed through a brief word, its repetition does not become tedious; rather, it evokes a distinct pleasure. A pronoun acts as a substitute for a noun. It was invented precisely so that a noun would not have to be repeated constantly, which would be unpleasant for the listeners. Consider allusions, and along with them terminologies, to be based on this exact same natural necessity.

**What can we learn from allusions?**

If the allusions of a language are studied closely, they shed light on the past events and history of its speakers. Their religious beliefs, superstitions, social conditions, customs, and pursuits become known. The way a nation has gradually traversed the stages of civilization, and the successive changes that have occurred in its life, all unfold before our eyes through the study of its language's allusions. For example, if you wish to discover what superstitions and myths the ancestors of the Germans, French, and English believed in, how their religious thoughts subsequently changed, what major historical events they experienced, which figures among their forebears became famous, and what circumstances and traits characterized them—then simply pick up a dictionary of the German, French, or English language that compiles its allusions. A mere cursory glance at this dictionary will reveal everything to you.

Today, allusions are also drawn from characters in fictional tales whose specific circumstances and traits have been vividly portrayed. When a writer or poet mentions a person in their prose or poetry whose traits and circumstances resemble those of a famous fictional character, they consider it sufficient to simply compare their subject to that character. Readers of the poetry or prose immediately understand from this comparison what traits and circumstances are found in the person being discussed. Allusions derived from fictional tales provide a clue to the imaginative power of the writers of the nation in whose language such allusions are used. Human life, human morality, and human society have so many facets that they cannot be counted. For every facet, a model exists before our eyes.

We know that a certain person lives a certain kind of life, or that a certain individual possesses a certain kind of morality, but it is not necessary that such a model also exists in our past history. Therefore, it becomes necessary for us to paint an accurate picture of this specific type of person through the medium of storytelling. Then, when other authors mention people of this same type, they can use this fictional model as an allusion. Driven by this very need, the writers of civilized and advanced nations have painted portraits of people with specific lifestyles and morals in the guise of fiction. By employing their imaginative power, they have crafted perfect archetypes of particular morals, traits, and circumstances. Subsequent authors have then utilized these archetypes as allusions.

The famous American essayist Osborne writes, What are allusions? They are the footprints of our nation. By retracing them, we can uncover the thoughts, beliefs, superstitions, customs, and circumstances of our ancestors. The renowned French essayist Shoi Karan writes, When I hear the phrase *French Revolution* from an eloquent speaker, my heart is overwhelmed by the terrifying and horrific events that once drenched the valleys of the River Seine in blood. But immediately after, my thoughts shift toward the magnificent democracy whose foundations were laid in those very blood-stained valleys.

**A Group That Dislikes Allusions**

In short, allusions are the lifeblood of the literature of civilized nations. Through these meaningful references, they breathe the spirit of eloquence into their poetry and prose. However, there are also people in the world who prefer not to entangle themselves in the complexities of allusions, avoiding them despite their immense benefits. An English lexicographer, who compiled a comprehensive dictionary of allusions, describes the mindset of such individuals in these words:

Some of today’s youth avoid learning about any event that occurred more than twenty-four hours ago. They dismiss historical events as outdated relics. They only want to hear about what is happening in their immediate surroundings right now. When they come across allusions—which are references to our nation's past events and ideas—they turn up their noses, simply because these events and ideas are absent from their own memories. It is precisely to spare their memories from being burdened that dictionaries of allusions have been compiled.

When there are people in Europe and America who turn up their noses at allusions, it is no surprise that such gentlemen exist in our country as well. We personally know individuals who hold similar views regarding technical terms, and we have had the honor of interacting with them. These gentlemen insist that no technical terms should be coined at all; instead, the meaning of every term should be spelled out in full sentences. They care little about the immense waste of paper and time involved in explaining a concept through full sentences, nor do they consider how tedious it is for readers when a lengthy explanation is repeated over and over.

Undoubtedly, there is no opinion in the world that lacks at least one supporter, and no thought that has not crossed someone's mind. The same is true for the aversion to allusions and technical terms. However, if the mindset of those who dislike allusions and terminology were universally adopted, the refined literary reserves and vast treasures of academic knowledge found in the civilized and advanced languages of the world today would simply not exist. The literature of every language would be nothing more than a massive pile of dry, flavorless, and endlessly repeated statements. No nation would ever have the opportunity to take pride in its knowledge and literature.

**The Sources of Allusions**

Where are allusions derived from? If you consider this, the following sources will become apparent:

1. Mythology, meaning the tales and legends of the gods.

2. Religious stories and books of religious beliefs.

3. Historical events.

4. Popular fictional tales and fables.

5. The poems of various poets, especially narrative poems.

6. Plays and theatrical works.

Accordingly, when we examine the sources of the allusions used in the English language and its literature, we find that they are drawn from the following repositories: The Holy Bible (the collection of the Torah, the Gospel, etc.); the Talmud, the religious text of the Jews; the mythological tales of Greece and Rome; the plays of Shakespeare; Milton’s *Paradise Lost*; *Gulliver’s Travels*; *The Travels of Marco Polo*; *Don Quixote*; Bunyan’s *The Pilgrim's Progress*, and so on. They also stem from the fictional works of Sheridan, Dickens, Dryden, Molière, Sir Walter Scott, Cooper, and others; the poetry of Coleridge, Virgil, Homer, Milton, Pope, Wordsworth, Goldsmith, and others; as well as the histories of England and Europe.

In addition to these, the titles of certain famous poems or essays are also used as allusions. Examples include *The Battle of the Books*, *The Battle of the Frogs and Mice*, and *The War of the Poets*. Descriptive epithets for various kings, poets, philosophers, and places—coined by poets and essayists—are also employed as allusions. For instance, The Alexander of the North (the title of King Charles II of Sweden), The Bee of Athens (Plato), The Athens of America (Boston), and The Sick Man of the East (referring to Turkey). Certain French and Latin phrases are also used as allusions. Beyond all these, the *Arabian Nights* (*Alf Layla*), which was authored in the East, is a major source of European allusions. There is no European language into which this wondrous and captivating book has not been translated. This book became so famous, popular, and universally beloved that no literate person remained deprived of reading it. This is why hundreds of allusions were drawn from its tales and integrated into European literature, where they are now freely spoken, written, and universally understood.

**Allusions in the Urdu Language**

The allusions of the English language have been mentioned merely as an example; our primary objective is to discuss the allusions of the Urdu language. We divide these allusions into two categories: (First) Literary allusions, meaning those used in Urdu prose and poetry. (Second) Common allusions, meaning those that have entered everyday colloquial speech.

To trace the origins of literary allusions in the Urdu language, one must consider that when Islam emerged from Arabia and conquered the surrounding lands, one of those countries was Iran. When Iran finally had the opportunity to recover and gather its senses after the onslaught of the conquerors, the Iranians sought to revive their fading literature. By then, all of Iran had embraced the religion of Islam, and Zoroastrianism had virtually disappeared. Consequently, the religious spirit of Arabia began to course through the veins of modern Iranian literature. The geography and history of Iran, combined with the religiosity of Arabia, gave birth to a new literature—one that we can neither call purely Iranian nor purely Arabic. The gleaming deserts of Arabic literature, its groves of date palms, camels, Bedouin tents, tales of raiding and pillaging, and exploits of heroic love all vanished. Instead, the stories of the Prophets, accounts of angels, visions of Heaven, Hell, and the Day of Judgment, along with the lives of certain famous Arab figures, came to encompass Iranian literature.

Of the Arabian mountains, only Mount Toor (Sinai) retained its place in poetry. Alvand, Qaf, Bisotun, and Alborz remained distinctly Iranian. Trees and flowers, too, were borrowed from the Iranian landscape: the cypress, boxwood, pine, willow, and chinar. The flowers were those that turned the Iranian soil into a blooming garden—the lily, hyacinth, elm, tulip, sweet basil, tuberose, violet, and narcissus. From the classic romances of beauty and love, the names of Salma, Layla, Qais, Azra, Wamiq, Yusuf, and Zulaikha were adopted, with Farhad and Shirin added to the fold. As for rivers, the Nile was taken from Egypt, and the Tigris and Euphrates from Arab Iraq, to which the Jihun and Sihun were added. Mentioning the western Arabian sea of Qulzum (the Red Sea) and the eastern sea of Oman was deemed essential, yet the Persian Gulf was left unnamed. Pearls were sourced from Aden and rubies from Yemen, complemented by the rubies of Badakhshan. The birds remained exclusively Iranian: the nightingale, parrot, turtledove, partridge, pheasant, eagle, the mythical Simurgh, and the falcon.

The Iranians also drew their kings and champions from their own national history. This modern Iranian literature—which was neither purely Arabic nor purely Iranian, but rather deserved the new moniker of Arabo-Iranian—reached India through invaders from the west. The Ghaznavid, Ghorid, Tughlaq, Khalji, Sayyid, Lodi, Suri, and Mughal dynasties, who ruled India during their respective eras, all spoke Persian. Within their courts, this same Arabo-Iranian literary tradition flourished. As the Persian language influenced the local Hindi Bhasha, the Urdu language gradually emerged. When local poets transitioned from Persian poetry to composing in Urdu, they naturally adopted the framework of this Arabo-Iranian literature. These poets belonged to the ruling, conquering class. Their attention was not drawn to Hindi and Sanskrit, the languages of the subjugated populace. They did not view Hindu musical traditions (Ragmala), history, poetry, or religion with any real interest. Consequently, it was inevitable that the allusions introduced into Urdu literature were not drawn from Hindu sources, but rather from the composite Arabo-Iranian literature that the conquerors had brought with them.

At this juncture, a question arises: if Urdu poets had no affinity for Hindu literature, why did they not observe India for themselves? Could India’s magnificent mountains, such as the Himalayas and the Vindhyas, and its majestic rivers—the Ganges, Yamuna, Indus, and Brahmaputra—leave no impression on their hearts? Could the beautiful and melodious native birds, like the koel, papiha, agin, and chandol, not captivate their emotions? Were the enchanting flowers and exquisite plants, the lush green meadows, fertile plains, shimmering springs, and leaping wildlife not enough to breathe the spirit of life and joy into their beings? The answer lies in the fact that when the Aryans left their original homeland and arrived here, they adopted this land as their own. They viewed everything here with deep interest, even cloaking many elements in religious sanctity. In contrast, the Muslims arrived as conquerors. They did not truly make this country their home. They continued to dream of the Jihun and Sihun, the Euphrates and the Tigris. They perpetually viewed the earth and sky of this land through the lens of alienation. They always considered their true refuge and sanctuary to be the lands they had left behind. Whenever Muslim kings attempted to align their politics with a sense of local nationalism, they faced backlash from the standard-bearers of religion. The consequences of this are plain to see. Until very recently, these attitudes dominated the hearts and minds of both the elite and the common people.

Maulana Hali founded his famous poem *Shikwa-e-Hind* (The Complaint of India) on these very sentiments. When this was later brought to his attention, he acknowledged his error. However, the fundamental truth is that a poet is a spokesperson for his era. His role is not inherently that of a reformer. He does not set out to change a belief or ideology; rather, he paints a picture of the ideas and events prevalent in his surroundings. Glimpses of politics are frequently evident in Maulana Hali’s poetry, but only to the extent that Muslim political thought had evolved during his time. The contemporary political theory—that Muslims can simultaneously embrace both their religion and nationalism without any inherent conflict—had not yet emerged in his era. Therefore, Maulana Hali was constrained by his time and could not articulate such a concept.

Ultimately, this is why the allusions that permeated Urdu literature were drawn from Arabo-Iranian traditions. They bear no connection to India’s ancient history, classical literature, local religions, indigenous customs, or natural landscapes. We will now discuss Iranian allusions. These allusions fall into two categories: first, those that entered through Arabic influence; and second, those that are purely Iranian in origin.

Urdu Literary Allusions (Category One)

The first category of literary allusions primarily consists of references to the Prophets, whom all Muslims regard with profound reverence. These are as follows:

The Creation of Adam

The angels were commanded to prostrate before Adam. Satan refused and was thus cursed. Prior to Adam’s creation, God had declared to the angels that He intended to send a deputy and vicegerent (*khalifa*) to the earth. The angels protested, arguing that Adam’s descendants would shed blood on the earth and were therefore unfit for this role. They claimed this right for themselves, as they constantly worshipped Him and remained occupied in His praise and glorification. God replied that they were unaware of His divine wisdom. Adam was created, and a test was conducted between him and the angels. Adam was able to answer questions that the angels could not. Following this, the souls of all of Adam’s descendants destined to be born until the Day of Judgment were brought forth. God asked them, *Alastu bi-Rabbikum?* (Am I not your Lord?). They replied, *Qalu Bala* (Yes, indeed, You are our Lord). Allusions derived from this narrative include terms such as *Bala* (Yes), *Qalu Bala* (They said yes), *Alast* (Am I not), *Roz-e-Alast* (The Day of the Primordial Covenant), *Ahd-e-Alast* (The Primordial Covenant), and *Mast-e-Alast* (Intoxicated by the Divine Covenant).

Prophet Adam was commanded to dwell in Paradise. He grew restless from loneliness, and Eve was created from his rib. In Paradise, there was a wheat tree, and the command was given not to approach it. Satan deceived Adam. Eve ate a grain of wheat herself and also fed it to Adam. As punishment for their disobedience, both were expelled from Paradise and cast down to earth. In allusions to this story, Satan's helpers—the snake and the peacock—are also mentioned. In allusions regarding Satan, it is stated that he was originally the teacher of the angels, a concept referred to by the term *Mu'allim al-Malakut* (Teacher of the Angels). He was created from fire, and Adam from dust. When Satan refused to bow before Adam, he presented this very argument: I was created from fire, and Adam from dust; therefore, I cannot bow before him. Due to his rebellion, the collar of a curse was placed around Satan's neck. He sought permission to lead the children of Adam astray. Permission was granted, but God declared, You shall have no power over My righteous servants. Among Adam's sons, Cain (Qabil) killed Abel (Habil). This event is also frequently invoked as a literary allusion.

Prophet Lot (Lut) is also mentioned through allusions; his wife was a disbeliever. Fire and stones were rained down upon his people as divine punishment. Since the human race descended from Adam, he is called *Abu al-Bashar* (the Father of Mankind).

Prophet Noah (Nuh) lived a remarkably long life, which is alluded to by the phrase *Umr-e-Nuh* (the age of Noah). He spent a vast period preaching to his people, but aside from eighty individuals, no one believed in him. He prayed against his people, and God sent a great flood. Prophet Noah was informed in advance. Following divine guidance, he built an ark. He placed a pair of every animal in it so that their species would continue after the flood. He also accommodated 108 disciples in this ark. When the flood began, torrential rain poured from the sky, and water began gushing forth in torrents from an old woman's oven. The ark began to float, and the water soon submerged the trees and hills. Prophet Noah's son, Canaan, remained rebellious. Despite being called repeatedly, he did not take refuge in the ark. A fierce wave came and swept him away. Prophet Noah's ark eventually came to rest on Mount Judi. A dove, which had been released from the ark, returned with a green olive branch in its beak, bringing the news that the flood had subsided. When this story is referenced, the terms *Kashti-e-Nuh* (Noah's Ark) and *Toofan-e-Nuh* (Noah's Flood) are used. In allusions to Canaan, who was Prophet Noah's disobedient son, the terms *Farzand-e-Nuh* and *Pisar-e-Nuh* (the son of Noah) appear. Since the human race began anew from Prophet Noah after Adam, he is also called *Adam-e-Sani* (the Second Adam).

Aad was an Arab tribe that traced its lineage to Aad, the son of Shem, the son of Noah. Prophet Hud was sent for their guidance, but they disobeyed, and a torment of violent winds was sent upon them, destroying them all. In allusions to this story, the terms *Toofan-e-Aad* (the storm of Aad) or *Sarsar-e-Aad* (the fierce wind of Aad) are used.

Thamud was another Arab tribe that claimed descent from Prophet Noah through four generations. Prophet Salih was sent for their guidance. They too rebelled and hamstrung Prophet Salih's she-camel. Due to their disobedience, they were also destroyed. The term *Naqa-e-Salih* (Salih's she-camel) is used as an allusion to this story. The Prophet Zechariah (Zakariya) was sawn in half with a saw; poets have repeatedly mentioned this as an allusion as well. Prophet Jonah (Yunus) was swallowed by a fish. Even inside the fish's belly, he remained engaged in praising and glorifying God. Ultimately, the fish spat him out onto the shore. The very name Yunus points to this story. Prophet Job (Ayyub) was subjected to various afflictions by God as a test, yet he did not utter a word of complaint and continued to thank God in every circumstance. The allusion *Sabr-e-Ayyub* (the patience of Job) refers to this narrative.

Prophet David (Dawud) possessed an incredibly melodious voice. When he sang hymns of praise and glorification to God, birds would gather around him. The terms *Mazamir-e-Dawud* (the psalms of David), *Naghma-e-Dawud* (the song of David), and *Lahn-e-Dawudi* (the tone of David) refer to this. The Psalms (Zabur) were revealed to him. His miracle was that iron would turn to wax as soon as it came into his hands, allowing him to easily fashion iron armor. Poets have also repeatedly mentioned this miracle.

Prophet Solomon (Sulaiman) was the son of Prophet David. God granted him a magnificent empire. Humans, demons, fairies, animals, and birds were all subservient to him. He had the grand structure of Bait al-Muqaddas (the Temple of Jerusalem) constructed. The wind would carry his flying throne wherever he wished. He possessed a ring engraved with the *Ism-e-Azam* (the Greatest Name of God). It was by its blessing that he held dominion over all creation. A demon stole this ring, and the kingdom slipped from Prophet Solomon's hands. In this state, he became employed by a fisherman. After stealing the ring, the demon flew into the sky, but the ring fell from his hand into the ocean, where a fish swallowed it. When God willed for Prophet Solomon's kingdom to be restored, that very fish was caught in the fisherman's net one day. When the fish's belly was cut open, the ring emerged. Prophet Solomon put it back on and once again graced the royal throne as before. The allusions *Takht-e-Sulaimani* (the throne of Solomon), *Khatam-e-Sulaimani* (the seal of Solomon), and *Angushtari-e-Sulaimani* (the ring of Solomon) serve as reminders of these events.

During the time of Prophet Solomon, Bilqis (the Queen of Sheba) ruled over the land of Saba. The hoopoe (Hudhud) carried Prophet Solomon's message to Bilqis. She accepted his authority and presented herself at his court. Before her arrival, her jewel-encrusted throne had been summoned and displayed in the court. The courtyard of Solomon's palace featured a floor made of glass, beneath which lay a pool of water. Everyone had to cross this floor to enter the court. Bilqis mistakenly thought the courtyard was flooded with water, so she lifted the hem of her dress to wade through it. Seeing her own throne placed in the court, Bilqis was left astounded and became convinced of Prophet Solomon's greatness and power. Poets have repeatedly mentioned Bilqis, Saba, the hoopoe, and Prophet Solomon's glass palace. The hoopoe is also referred to as *Murgh-e-Sulaiman* (the bird of Solomon). Alongside Solomon, the mention of the *Mor* (ant) inevitably arises. What a contrast between an ant, a lowly creature, and Solomon, who possessed greater majesty and authority than all the kings of the world! There is also a brief tale regarding the ant and Solomon. Prophet Solomon understood the languages of birds, a miraculous ability alluded to by the term *Mantiq-ut-Tayr* (the speech of birds).

The names of Prophet Yusuf (Joseph) and Prophet Yaqub (Jacob) are often mentioned together. Prophet Yusuf was the son of Prophet Yaqub. Prophet Yusuf and Yamin were born to one mother, while there were ten other sons from another mother. Prophet Yaqub held Prophet Yusuf very dear, a fact that deeply resented his brothers. Once, Prophet Yusuf dreamt that the sun, the moon, and eleven stars were prostrating before him. Upon hearing this dream, Prophet Yaqub forbade him from mentioning it to his brothers. One day, under the pretext of hunting and recreation, the brothers insistently took Prophet Yusuf to the wilderness and threw him into a dry, dark well. They tore his shirt, stained it with blood, and brought it before their father, claiming that a wolf had devoured Yusuf and that they had only found his shirt. Prophet Yaqub was overwhelmed with grief.

Meanwhile, a trade caravan was traveling to Egypt. A slave from this caravan arrived at the well to fetch water. Seeing someone inside, he immediately lowered a bucket and pulled him out. Prophet Yusuf possessed unparalleled beauty. Zulaikha, the wife of the Aziz of Egypt (the Chief Minister), fell in love with him. The women of Egypt began to taunt Zulaikha for being infatuated with her own slave. In response, Zulaikha once gathered the Egyptian women and hid Prophet Yusuf behind a curtain. She handed each woman a knife and a lemon, instructing them to slice their lemons the moment Yusuf emerged from behind the curtain. When Prophet Yusuf stepped out, the Egyptian women lost their senses in awe and ended up cutting their own hands instead of the lemons. Zulaikha then said to them, You used to taunt me for being captivated by the beauty of this Canaanite slave. Why have you now lost your own senses?

Zulaikha repeatedly tried to seduce Prophet Yusuf. Once, in seclusion, she locked the doors of the house and pleaded with him, but it had no effect on Prophet Yusuf. He fled from her, and the locks on the doors miraculously opened on their own. Zulaikha ran after him. At the final door, she grabbed his shirt from behind and tore it. Just then, the Aziz of Egypt arrived. He was furious with his wife, but she immediately claimed, This slave of yours tried to assault my honor. I barely managed to escape. By divine intervention, a nursing infant present at the scene was granted the power of speech. The infant proclaimed loudly, If Yusuf's shirt is torn from the front, then he is guilty; but if it is torn from the back, then Zulaikha is at fault. Upon inspection, the shirt was found torn from the back. Seeing this, the Aziz severely reprimanded his wife. However, the obsession of love that possessed her was not so easily subdued. Zulaikha continued to pursue Prophet Yusuf relentlessly. When she realized that none of her charms were working, she falsely accused him and had him sent to prison.

Prophet Yusuf endured severe hardships in prison, yet he remained patient and grateful. He possessed a special mastery in the interpretation of dreams. He interpreted the dreams of two fellow inmates, and events unfolded exactly as he had predicted. One of these prisoners, whose dream had been interpreted and who was subsequently appointed as the cupbearer in the court of the Egyptian king, remembered Prophet Yusuf on a specific occasion. This happened when the king had a terrifying dream about an impending famine, and the cupbearer recommended Prophet Yusuf to him. Prophet Yusuf provided the correct interpretation of the dream, explaining that the country would experience seven years of abundance, followed by seven years of severe famine. The king appointed Prophet Yusuf as his viceroy, entrusting him with the management of the famine. During the years of plenty, Prophet Yusuf amassed vast stores of grain, which he then distributed to the people during the years of famine.

Driven by the hardships of the famine, Prophet Yusuf's brothers also came to Egypt to purchase grain. Prophet Yusuf recognized them and provided them with an abundance of grain. Upon hearing that Prophet Yaqub's eyes had gone blind from weeping in sorrow for him, he sent news of his survival and invited them to Egypt. When Prophet Yusuf's brothers reached their father in Canaan, they presented him with Yusuf's shirt. As soon as he touched the shirt, his eyesight miraculously returned. Prophet Yaqub could perceive the fragrance of Prophet Yusuf emanating from the garment. This story is incredibly fascinating. An entire chapter in the Holy Quran is dedicated to it, and numerous books in both prose and poetry have recounted this tale. Poets have extensively employed allusions (*talmihat*) from this story, using the following terms to evoke its various elements: *Mah-e-Kanaan* (the Moon of Canaan, referring to Prophet Yusuf), *Chah-e-Kanaan* (the Well of Canaan), *Chah-e-Yusuf* (the Well of Yusuf), *Husn-e-Yusuf* (the Beauty of Yusuf), *Zindan-e-Yusuf* (the Prison of Yusuf), *Bait-ul-Huzn* (the House of Sorrow, referring to Prophet Yaqub's dwelling where he sat and wept), *Khwab-e-Yusuf* (the Dream of Yusuf), *Bradaran-e-Yusuf* (the Brothers of Yusuf), *Aziz-e-Misr* (the Chief Minister of Egypt), *Zulaikha*, and *Pir-e-Kanaan* (the Old Man of Canaan, referring to Prophet Yaqub).

It is famously held that Prophet Idris was taken to heaven alive. However, he is rarely mentioned in poetry, as is the case with Prophet Yahya (John). Regarding Prophet Ilyas (Elijah), it is widely believed that he is entrusted with the dominion of the seas, while Prophet Khidr is appointed over the land. However, in Urdu and Persian literature, the role of guiding and resolving difficulties on both land and sea is generally attributed solely to Prophet Khidr. Guiding ships and boats, aiding the distressed during storms, and leading those who have lost their way in forests and deserts back to the right path are all considered to be his tasks. Alexander the Great (Sikandar) and Khidr journey together toward the Fountain of the Water of Life, traversing the Realm of Darkness (*Zulmat*). However, only Khidr succeeds; he drinks the Water of Life and attains immortality. Alexander wanders lost in the Darkness and returns, lamenting his ill-fated deprivation. *Aab-e-Hayat* (Water of Life), *Aab-e-Baqa* (Water of Eternity), *Chashma-e-Haiwan* (Fountain of Life), *Aab-e-Khidr* (Water of Khidr), *Chashma-e-Khidr* (Fountain of Khidr), *Aab-e-Haiwan* (Water of Life), *Chashma-e-Zindagi* (Fountain of Life), *Zulmat* (The Darkness), and *Rah-e-Zulmat* (The Path of Darkness) are all allusions derived from this tale. Poets often refer to Prophet Khidr by the titles *Mubarak Qadam* and *Khujasta Pay* (both meaning The One with Auspicious Footsteps). As for Luqman, some consider him among the ranks of philosophers, while others include him in the category of prophets; however, nothing is as renowned about him as his profound wisdom.

Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) holds the title of *Khalilullah* (The Friend of Allah). His hospitality is legendary. The allusion *Khwan-e-Khalil* (The Feast of Khalil) points directly to this trait. Alongside Prophet Ibrahim's name, his father Azar is frequently mentioned in the capacity of an idol-maker. As Prophet Ibrahim comes of age, he develops a deep aversion to idols. He shatters the idols in Azar's temple. The ruler of the time, Nimrod (Namrud), becomes infuriated upon hearing of this and orders him to be thrown into a fire, but the fire miraculously transforms into a blooming garden. *Aatish-e-Namrud* (The Fire of Nimrod), *Gulzar-e-Khalil* (The Garden of Khalil), and *Gulzar-e-Ibrahim* (The Garden of Ibrahim) are allusions rooted in this event.

Nimrod was a rebellious and arrogant king. A mere mosquito entered his nose and brought about his end. The battle between the mosquito and Nimrod is a prominent theme in our poetry. Prophet Abraham was also put to the test. He prepared to sacrifice his beloved son, Ishmael, in the path of God, but a ram miraculously appeared, and he was commanded to sacrifice the animal in Ishmael's stead. The festival of Eid al-Adha commemorates this very event. Because of this narrative, Prophet Ishmael was bestowed the title of *Zabihullah* (the Sacrificed of God). The phrase *Zibh-e-Azeem* (the Great Sacrifice) also alludes to this incident. Prophet Abraham later left his son Ishmael and his mother in Mecca. It was a barren land with no trace of water. In a desperate search for water for the infant Ishmael, his mother, Hagar, ran frantically across the desolate terrain, but found nothing. Overcome by intense thirst, the infant Ishmael cried and rubbed his heels against the ground. Suddenly, the spring of Zamzam gushed forth from beneath his feet—a spring that is considered sacred to this day. Prophet Abraham laid the foundations of the Kaaba. The Black Stone, also known as *Hajr-e-Aswad*, is a relic from that era of construction and remains embedded in the Kaaba to this day. Every pilgrim kisses it with profound reverence. Poets refer to the Kaaba using terms such as *Baitullah*, *Bait-ul-Haram*, *Masjid-e-Haram*, and *Bait-ul-Ateeq*.

Prophet Moses was also a prophet of immense stature. The Torah was revealed to him, and he holds the title of *Kaleemullah* (the One Who Spoke with God). During his time, the Pharaoh ruling over Egypt was exceedingly arrogant and tyrannical, even claiming divinity for himself. Soothsayers and astrologers had prophesied that the one destined to destroy him would be born among the Israelites. The condition of the Israelites during that era was utterly wretched. They were subjected to slavery and forced labor in Egypt. Upon hearing the prophecy, Pharaoh ordered the systematic slaughter of all newborn Israelite boys. When Prophet Moses was born, his mother placed him in a cradle and cast it into the river. The cradle drifted until it reached Pharaoh's palace. Pharaoh's wife had it retrieved from the water. Upon seeing the child's face, she was moved to compassion and firmly resolved to raise him. Pharaoh suspected that this child might be his prophesied killer and wanted to put him to death, but his wife intervened and shielded the infant.

Pharaoh devised a peculiar test for the child. Two trays were placed before him: one filled with gleaming rubies and the other with burning coals. Pharaoh reasoned that if this child was indeed his destined killer, he would possess the intellect to avoid the hot coals. As the infant reached out, his hand was about to grasp the rubies, but an angel guided his hand toward the tray of burning coals instead. The child picked up a glowing coal and immediately placed it in his mouth. Both his palm and his tongue were severely burned. The white scar left on his hand was later transformed into the miracle of the White Hand (*Yad-e-Baiza*). However, the burn left him with a lifelong stutter. When a wet nurse was sought for the infant Moses, the opportunity miraculously fell to his own mother, allowing him to be nourished by her milk.

As he grew up, Prophet Moses received a princely education. The Egyptian priests imparted all their knowledge and sciences to him. Eventually, he discovered that he was neither Pharaoh's biological son nor a Copt, but rather of Israelite descent. This realization fostered a deep sympathy for his own people and a strong aversion toward the Copts. One day, he witnessed a Copt oppressing an Israelite. Enraged by the sight, he struck the Copt, inadvertently killing him. Following this, he fled Egypt. Upon reaching the borders of Arabia, he arrived at a well in Midian where he saw several young women drawing water. Parched with thirst, he asked them for a drink. They replied that they would attend to him only after they had watered their livestock. Prophet Moses proposed a trade: if they gave him water to drink, he would draw water for their animals. The women agreed to this arrangement.

These young women were the daughters of Prophet Jethro (*Shuaib*) of Midian. When they recounted the encounter with the young man to their venerable father, Prophet Jethro summoned Moses and made him an offer: if he agreed to herd their tribe's sheep for twelve years, Jethro would give him his daughter in marriage. Prophet Moses accepted the proposal. After twelve years of service, the marriage took place, and Moses eventually set out on a journey with his wife. Along the way, they reached the Valley of Ayman, situated at the foot of Mount Sinai (*Koh-e-Tur*). His wife was heavily pregnant, and as they camped there for the night, she went into labor. They desperately needed a fire. Spotting a light on the distant mountain, Moses walked toward it to fetch some embers. To his astonishment, he found a tree entirely engulfed in radiant light, yet it was not burning. A voice emanated from the tree: I am your God. You are in the sacred valley. Take off your shoes. Overwhelmed, Moses pleaded, *Rabbi Arini* (O Lord, reveal Yourself to me). The divine reply echoed, *Lan Tarani* (You shall never be able to see Me). Yet, when the divine glory manifested itself, Moses fainted and collapsed. The mountain trembled and was instantly reduced to fine, dark ash (*surma*).

This profound event has given rise to numerous literary allusions, including: *Tajalli-e-Tur* (the manifestation at Sinai), *Shola-e-Tur* (the flame of Sinai), *Nakhl-e-Tur* (the tree of Sinai), *Shama-e-Tur* (the candle of Sinai), *Shajar-e-Tur* (the bush of Sinai), *Nakhl-e-Musa* (the tree of Moses), *Jalwa-e-Tur* (the splendor of Sinai), *Nakhl-e-Ayman* (the tree of Ayman), *Shama-e-Ayman* (the candle of Ayman), *Wadi-e-Ayman* (the Valley of Ayman), *Noor-e-Sina* (the light of Sinai), *Wadi-e-Sina* (the Valley of Sinai), *Shola-e-Sina* (the flame of Sinai), *Tur-e-Sina* (Mount Sinai), *Surma-e-Tur* (the ash of Sinai), *Rabbi Arini* (Show Yourself to me), *Lan Tarani* (You shall not see Me), and *Kharra Musa* (Moses fell unconscious). When Prophet Moses regained consciousness, he was commanded to go with his brother Aaron and deliver God's message to Pharaoh. At that very moment, Moses was granted two miracles. The first was that whenever he cast his staff onto the ground, it would transform into a massive serpent. The second was that when he drew his hand out from his collar, it would shine as brilliantly as the sun. In literature, the first miracle is alluded to through the terms *Asa-e-Musa* (the staff of Moses) and *Asa-e-Kaleem* (the staff of the Speaker), while the second is referenced as *Dast-e-Kaleem* (the hand of the Speaker), *Dast-e-Musa* (the hand of Moses), and *Yad-e-Baiza* (the White Hand).

Departing from Mount Sinai, Prophet Moses arrived in Egypt with Prophet Aaron. Pharaoh summoned his greatest magicians to challenge them, but Moses triumphed over them with the power of his staff and the glowing White Hand. After enduring immense hardships and fierce confrontations, they finally liberated the Israelites from Pharaoh's bondage and led them to the edge of the sea. With a single strike of his staff, the waters parted, creating a dry path. Prophet Moses and his people crossed safely to the other side. Pharaoh and his army arrived in hot pursuit just as the sea remained parted and the Israelites had completed their crossing. Driven by arrogance, Pharaoh led his forces into the dry seabed. However, when they reached the middle, the towering walls of water collapsed back onto them, and Pharaoh drowned along with his entire army. In poetry, this body of water is often referred to as the Nile, though historians identify it as the Red Sea (*Bahr-e-Qulzum*).

After crossing the river, Prophet Moses took the Israelites to the wilderness known as the Wilderness of the Israelites (*Tih-e-Bani Israel*). They remained there for forty years. Although Moses repeatedly urged the Israelites to attack Palestine, expel Pharaoh's governors, and reclaim their homeland, their courage and bravery had been shattered by a prolonged life of slavery. In this wilderness, the Israelites survived on what is known as *Mann-o-Salwa* (Manna and Quails). It is widely believed that this was a tray of heavenly delicacies sent down daily by angels, and this popular belief forms the basis of its poetic usage. Prophet Moses would frequently go to Mount Sinai (*Koh-e-Toor*) to converse with God. It was on this sacred mountain that he was granted the scriptures of the Torah. Once, while he was away at Mount Sinai, a man named Samiri crafted a golden calf that could produce sounds. Moses's people began to worship it. Upon his return, Moses was furious and burned the calf—referred to in poetic parlance as the Calf of Samiri (*Gosala-e-Samiri*)—reducing it to ashes.

Prophet Jesus was born without a father. His revered mother's name is Mary (*Hazrat Maryam*). The tree she leaned against during the pains of childbirth is famously known as the Palm of Mary (*Nakhl-e-Maryam*). Mary was a deeply devout and ascetic woman. She would make an intention at night and refrain from speaking to anyone throughout the day, remaining entirely absorbed in the remembrance of God. This practice is referred to as the Fast of Mary (*Saum-e-Maryam* or *Roza-e-Maryam*). Prophet Jesus is remembered by the titles Son of Mary (*Ibn-e-Maryam*) and the Spirit of God (*Roohullah*). The donkey he rode is mentioned as the Donkey of Jesus (*Khar-e-Isa*). *Masih* and *Masiha* (Messiah) are also names for Prophet Jesus. He would bring the dead back to life by saying, *Qum bi-izni* (Rise by my command). This miracle is alluded to using terms such as the Miracle of Jesus (*Ijaz-e-Iswi*), the Breath of Jesus (*Dam-e-Isa*), the Miracle of the Messiah (*Ijaz-e-Masiha*), *Qum*, and *Qum bi-izni*.

Prophet Jesus would fashion birds out of clay, breathe life into them, and make them fly. The bat is considered a living monument to this miracle and is called the Bird of Jesus (*Murgh-e-Isa*) or the Bird of the Messiah (*Murgh-e-Masiha*). Healing the sick was another of his miracles, which is also frequently referenced in poetry. Christians call him the Son of God (*Ibnullah*). The Gospel (*Injeel*) was revealed to him. The Jews crucified him, but God raised him up alive, and he ascended to the fourth heaven. Near the Day of Judgment, he will descend to earth once more to confront an infidel named the Antichrist (*Dajjal*), who will be riding a donkey. The Donkey of the Antichrist (*Khar-e-Dajjal*) serves as an allusion to this impending event. Legend has it that while ascending to the heavens, a needle remained stuck in Jesus's garment. Because this was a worldly object, the revered prophet could not ascend beyond the fourth heaven. The Needle of Jesus (*Sozan-e-Isa*) is an allusion to this belief.

There are a few other allusions related to the era of the prophets that were not covered under the direct accounts of the prophets themselves. One of these is Harut and Marut. These are the names of two angels who claimed that, unlike humans who fall prey to carnal desires, they would never succumb to such temptations if sent to the world. God sent them to earth as a test. Initially, they occupied themselves with preaching and worship, but eventually, they fell in love with a courtesan named Zohra. It is said that this woman was incredibly beautiful and a sorceress. She learned the spell to ascend to the heavens from these angels, while she taught them the dark arts of magic. As punishment, God suspended these angels upside down in a well in Babylon. It is believed that all the smoke of the world gathers there, entering their nostrils and tormenting them. If anyone wishes to learn magic from them, they still teach it. Following this incident, the courtesan ascended to the heavens and became the planet Venus (*Zohra*). The allusions of *Zohra* and the Well of Babylon (*Chah-e-Babil*) are tied to this tale.

Another tale is that of Zul-Qarnain, whom the general public often conflates with Alexander the Great (*Sikandar*). It is said that behind two mountains lives a tribe known as Gog and Magog (*Yajooj Majooj*). Between these two mountains lies a pass through which this tribe would emerge to torment people. There are bizarre and fantastical traditions regarding the physical appearance and stature of this tribe. It is famously recounted that Alexander Zul-Qarnain melted iron and copper to build a massive wall between these mountains, preventing them from breaking out. Legend has it that every day, these people lick the wall until it becomes paper-thin. By evening, they leave whatever is left for the next day. However, overnight, the wall grows just as thick as it originally was. Near the Day of Judgment, this tribe will finally break through the wall. This legendary barrier is famously known as the Wall of Alexander (*Sadd-e-Sikandari*).

Then there is the story of the Companions of the Cave (*Ashab-e-Kahf*), which literally translates to the men of the cave. During the early days of the spread of Christianity, seven men embraced the faith during the reign of the idolatrous Roman Emperor Decius (*Daqiyanoos*). These men are known as the Companions of the Cave. Fleeing the emperor's tyranny, they hid in a mountain cave and slept for three hundred years. They awoke briefly, only to fall asleep once more. A dog had accompanied them to the mouth of the cave and slept there as well. The name of this dog is said to be Qitmeer. It is believed that they will now awaken on the Day of Judgment. The dog will be resurrected in human form and will enter Paradise alongside them.

Another legend is that of the *Anqa* (the Griffin or Phoenix). It is described as a colossal bird with a long neck, a human-like face, four legs, and multi-colored wings. It used to carry off children. During the era when it appeared, Haitala was the prophet of the time. The people complained to him about the creature. Through his prayers, the bird was banished to a remote island and hidden from human sight. It now survives on that island by hunting elephants and dragons.

Finally, there is the story of the Garden of Iram (*Bagh-e-Iram*), which was built by an infidel king named Shaddad. This king had claimed divinity. The prophet of his time admonished him, saying that if he embraced the path of truth, he would be rewarded with Paradise, and then described the wonders of Paradise to him. Shaddad arrogantly replied that he could build such a paradise himself. Consequently, he constructed a magnificent garden in the region of Iram, featuring palaces studded with jewels, beautiful women in place of the heavenly *Houris*, and handsome servants in place of the heavenly *Ghilman*. When the garden was complete, he rode to its gates on horseback. However, he was not even granted the moment to take his foot out of the stirrup and step onto the ground; the Angel of Death seized his soul. It is said that after his death, this garden was lifted from the earth and placed suspended between Heaven and Hell. This realm is now known as *Aaraf*. The Garden of Iram (*Bagh-e-Iram*), the Rose Garden of Iram (*Gulzar-e-Iram*), the Paradise of Iram (*Bihisht-e-Iram*), the Paradise of Shaddad (*Bihisht-e-Shaddad* or *Jannat-e-Shaddad*), the Garden of Shaddad (*Bagh-e-Shaddad*), and simply *Iram* are all allusions derived from this story.

One such story is that of Uj ibn Anaq, who was born during the time of Prophet Adam and lived until the era of Prophet Moses. He was a man of immense stature; the floodwaters of Noah only reached his waist. During the time of Prophet Moses, he attempted to attack the Israelite army. To do so, he lifted a two-mile-long mountain onto his head, intending to hurl it at them. However, by divine command, a hoopoe pecked a hole through the mountain, causing it to slip down and trap Uj by the neck. Prophet Moses then struck Uj's ankle bone with his staff, killing him. Legend has it that his shin bone was later used to build a bridge across the River Nile.

Another story is that of Qarun (Korah). It is said that Qarun was the paternal cousin of Prophet Moses. He possessed the knowledge of alchemy, allowing him to create gold and silver, and he continuously amassed treasure upon treasure. Eventually, his wealth grew so vast that the keys to his vaults had to be carried by forty mules. Prophet Moses instructed him to pay *zakat* (obligatory charity) at a rate of one dinar for every thousand dinars. Qarun refused and instead sought to harm Prophet Moses. As divine punishment, God decreed that his entire treasure be placed upon his head, and he was made to sink continuously into the earth. Qarun's miserliness is legendary. Phrases such as *Qarun ka Khazana*, *Ganj-e-Qarun*, *Ganjina-e-Qarun*, *Khazana-e-Qarun*, and *Daulat-e-Qarun* (all meaning the treasure of Qarun) serve as allusions to this tale.

There is also the story of the *Ashab-e-Feel* (People of the Elephant), which took place before the blessed birth of the Messenger of God. A man named Abraha served as the governor of Yemen on behalf of the King of Abyssinia. Burning with envy at the reverence people held for the Kaaba, he constructed a magnificent place of worship in Yemen and commanded the people to perform their pilgrimage there instead. However, a flock of *ababeel* (swallows) emerged from the sea and began hovering in the sky above his army. Each bird carried a small pebble in its beak. When the birds dropped these pebbles onto the army, the stones pierced straight through the bodies of the elephant riders, destroying them all. The terms *Ashab-e-Feel* and *Tairan Ababeel* (flocks of birds) are allusions to this event.

The Holy Prophet is the final messenger. His countless descriptive titles are frequently used as allusions in literature. Examples include *Khatam al-Anbiya*, *Khatam an-Nabiyyin*, and *Khatm-e-Rusul* (Seal of the Prophets); *Shafe-e-Mahshar* and *Shafi-e-Roz-e-Qayamat* (Intercessor on the Day of Judgment); *Shah-e-Umam* (King of the Nations); *Rasul-e-Maqbul* (the Accepted Messenger); *Shafe-e-Umam* (Intercessor of the Nations); *Rahmat-ul-lil-Alameen* (Mercy to the Worlds); *Shafi-ul-Muznibin* (Intercessor for the Sinners); *Sarwar-e-Kainat* (Master of the Universe); *Mah-e-Yathrib* (Moon of Medina); *Khair-ul-Wara* (Best of Creation); *Madinat-ul-Ilm* (City of Knowledge); *Mustafa* (the Chosen One); and *Mujtaba* (the Selected One), among others. *Laulaka* is a fragment of a *Hadith Qudsi* (sacred tradition), meaning, Had it not been for you, I would not have created the heavens. *Sharh-e-Sadr* (the expanding of the breast) is another allusion. It refers to an event from his childhood when angels opened his chest, washed and purified his heart, filled it with the light of divine knowledge, and placed it back inside. *Mohr-e-Nabuwat* (the Seal of Prophethood) is yet another allusion, referring to a distinct physical mark on the Prophet's blessed body. At that spot, a cluster of hair had naturally formed in a shape that resembled the letters of the Islamic declaration of faith (*Kalima*).

*Qaba Qausain* translates to the distance of two bows. This allusion relates to the *Miraj* (the Night Ascension). It signifies that during the Ascension, the Holy Prophet drew so close to God that the distance between them was merely that of two bows, or even less. The *Miraj* itself is a prominent allusion. It refers to a night when the Prophet was asleep; the Angel Gabriel arrived, awakened him, and had him mount the *Buraq*. This was a heavenly quadruped, smaller than a mule but larger than a donkey. Riding the *Buraq*, the Prophet first traveled to *Bait-ul-Muqaddas* (Jerusalem), where the souls of all previous prophets had gathered to welcome him. From there, he began his ascent into the heavens. Upon reaching *Bait-ul-Ma'mur* in the celestial realm, he was greeted by the souls. *Bait-ul-Ma'mur* serves as a sanctuary for angels in the heavens, much like the Kaaba does for humanity on Earth.

*Sidrat-ul-Muntaha*, also known simply as *Sidrah*, is the celestial dwelling place of the Angel Gabriel. Upon reaching this boundary, Gabriel stated that he could not proceed any further, explaining that if he took even a single step forward, his wings would be incinerated by the intensity of the Divine Light. The *Buraq* also halted its journey there. At this point, the Prophet was provided with another celestial conveyance known as the *Rafraf*. Mounting it, he continued onward, attaining an extraordinary and intimate closeness to God. The exalted station the Prophet reached that night is known as *Maqam-e-Mahmud* (the Praised Station). When he finally returned to Earth, the chain on the door of his blessed chamber was still swaying, and his bed was still warm. It was as though he had journeyed through the heavens, the Divine Throne (*Arsh*), the Footstool (*Kursi*), Paradise, and Hell, all in the blink of an eye. This miraculous event is alluded to using terms such as *Miraj*, *Isra*, *Shab-e-Miraj*, and *Lailat-ul-Isra*.

*Ghar-e-Hira* (the Cave of Hira) is another common allusion. Located in a mountain near Mecca, it was a secluded spot where the Prophet frequently retreated for worship. Another allusion is *Masjid-e-Zirar* (the Mosque of Harm). After migrating from Mecca to Medina, the Prophet laid the foundation for a mosque where all Muslims would gather to fulfill their obligatory prayers. However, a group of hypocrites constructed a separate mosque some distance away from the Prophet's Mosque (*Masjid-e-Nabawi*). Their true motive was to create a covert gathering place to plot conspiracies against Islam and the Prophet. They approached the Prophet, requesting him to pray in their mosque at least once, and asked him to grant permission for the elderly and frail—who struggled to travel the distance to *Masjid-e-Nabawi*—to pray in this new building. Through divine revelation, the Prophet was made aware of their malicious intentions. He refused to pray there, and upon his orders, the structure was subsequently burned down. This building is remembered in history as *Masjid-e-Zirar*.

*Khum-e-Ghadir*—originally *Ghadir Khumm*—is the name of a pond where the Prophet delivered his final sermon while returning from his farewell pilgrimage. *Ahl-e-Bait* (People of the House) refers to the members of the Prophet's household. *Khatun-e-Jannat* (Lady of Paradise) is the revered title of his pure daughter, Hazrat Fatima Zahra. The allusion *Yar-e-Ghar* (Friend of the Cave) refers to Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq, who was the Prophet's devoted companion in a mountain cave during the migration to Medina. *Farooq* or *Farooq-e-Azam* is the title of Hazrat Umar, while *Zun-Nurain* (Possessor of Two Lights) and *Jami-ul-Quran* (Compiler of the Quran) are the titles of Hazrat Uthman; both were highly distinguished companions. Hazrat Ali was the Prophet's son-in-law, and his descriptive titles are exceptionally numerous. They include *Fateh-e-Khaibar* and *Khaibar Shikan* (Conqueror/Breaker of Khaibar), *Haidar-e-Karrar* and *Haidar-e-Safdar* (the Fierce, Charging Lion), *Abu Turab* (Father of Dust), *Murtaza* (the Chosen One), *Mushkil Kusha* (the Resolver of Difficulties), *Saqi-e-Kausar* (Cupbearer of the Fountain of Kausar), *Sher-e-Khuda* and *Asadullah* (Lion of God), *Duldul Sawar* (Rider of Duldul), and *Shah-e-Mardan* (King of Men). His legendary sword is known as *Zulfiqar*, and his famous steed is named *Duldul*.

Khalid bin Walid was another prominent companion; his title is *Saifullah* (the Sword of God). Another companion is distinguished by the *kunya* (agnomen) Abu Huraira (Father of the Kitten). He kept a pet cat, and the literary allusion *Gurba-e-Abu Huraira* (the Cat of Abu Huraira) refers specifically to this feline. Conversely, among the Prophet's fiercest opponents, two are remembered by the epithets Abu Jahl (Father of Ignorance) and Abu Lahab (Father of Flame). Finally, *Bagh-e-Fadak* (the Garden of Fadak) was a date orchard acquired following a peace treaty with the Jewish tribes. The income generated from this orchard provided the livelihood for the Holy Prophet.

Among the angels frequently invoked in literary allusions is Gabriel (Jibril). He is known by numerous descriptive titles, such as *Murgh-e-Sidrah*, *Bulbul-e-Sidrah*, *Tair-e-Sidrah*, *Sidrah-Nasheen*, *Jibril-e-Amin*, *Jauhar-e-Awwal*, *Aql-e-Kul*, *Rooh-ul-Qudus*, *Tair-e-Qudus*, *Rooh-ul-Amin*, *Namoos-e-Akbar*, *Namoos-e-Azam*, and *Farishta-e-Wahi* (the Angel of Revelation). His duty was to deliver God's messages to the Holy Prophet. His celestial station is *Sidrat al-Muntaha* (the Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary), as previously discussed in the context of the *Miraj* (the Ascension). Another angel is Michael (Mikail), whose responsibility is the distribution of sustenance. Then there is Azrael (Izrail), who is tasked with taking souls; he is also referred to as *Malak-ul-Maut*, *Qabiz-e-Rooh*, or the Angel of Death. Another is Israfil, who will blow the trumpet on the Day of Judgment. The allusion *Soor-e-Israfil* (the Trumpet of Israfil) is directly associated with him. Additionally, there are angels known as *Kiraman Katibin*, also called *Katib-e-Amaal* (the scribes of deeds). These two angels accompany every human being on their right and left, continuously recording their good and bad deeds. The ledger in which these deeds are recorded, and which will be presented before God on the Day of Judgment, is known as *Sahifa-e-Amaal*, *Daftar-e-Amaal*, *Nama-e-Amaal*, or *Amaal Nama*.

Two angels visit the grave to question the deceased; they are known as Munkar and Nakir, or collectively as *Nakirain*. Another angel, named *Ra'a*, is responsible for driving the clouds and bringing rain. The keeper of Paradise is an angel named Ridwan, while the guardian of Hell is called Malik. The intermediary period between death and the Day of Judgment is known as *Barzakh* or *Alam-e-Barzakh*. Paradise is the abode where the souls of the righteous will reside. It is referred to by many names, such as *Behesht*, *Khuld*, *Jinan*, *Dar-us-Salam*, *Bagh-e-Jinan*, *Bagh-e-Rizwan*, *Firdaus*, *Firdaus-e-Barin*, *Bagh-e-Adan*, *Dar-ul-Qarar*, *Illiyin*, and *Bagh-e-Naeem*. Conversely, Hell is the place where sinners will be confined and subjected to the torment of fire. It, too, has numerous names, including *Nar*, *Jahannam*, *Jaheem*, *Sa'eer*, *Hawiyah*, and *Saqar*.

In Paradise, there is a celestial tree named *Tuba*, whose branches extend into the home of every inhabitant. There are also several rivers, one of which is named *Kauthar*, also referred to as *Chashma-e-Kauthar* (the Spring of Kauthar) or *Hauz-e-Kauthar* (the Basin of Kauthar). Other rivers include *Tasneem*, *Nahrain*, *Salsabil*, *Zanjabil*, and *Kafur*. The realm situated between Heaven and Hell is called *A'raf*; this is where individuals whose good and bad deeds are exactly equal will be placed. Spanning across Hell is a bridge known as *Pul-e-Sirat*, which is described as being sharper than a sword and thinner than a hair. The righteous will cross it as swiftly as lightning, while the wicked will be sliced by it and fall into the fires of Hell below. To weigh these good and bad deeds, a great scale will be erected on the Day of Judgment, known as *Mizan* or *Mizan-e-Amaal*.

In Paradise, beautiful maidens known as *Houris* will attend to the blessed, while handsome youths appointed to serve them are called *Ghilman*. The pure wine served to the inhabitants of Paradise is known as *Sharab-e-Tahoor*. Conversely, the denizens of Hell will be forced to eat a thorny fruit called *Zaqqum*. Countless sinners will be cast into Hell, yet its belly will never be full. It will repeatedly cry out, *Hal min mazeed?* (Is there any more?). This Quranic verse is also frequently invoked as a literary allusion. Beyond these religious references, Arabian tales—such as the legendary generosity of Hatim and the tragic romance of Laila and Qais—also migrated to Iran and became seamlessly woven into Persian literature.

The literary allusions cataloged in this first category have been provided merely as examples; this is by no means an exhaustive list. Such a comprehensive undertaking belongs to an author compiling a dedicated dictionary of allusions. We now turn our attention to the second category of allusions—those shaped by Persian influence.

**Urdu Literary Allusions: Category Two**

Jamshid was a legendary king of Iran, frequently mentioned in literature for his opulence, luxury, and grandeur. He is also referred to simply as *Jam*. However, poets use the word *Jam* fluidly: sometimes to mean Prophet Solomon (Sulaiman), sometimes Alexander the Great (Sikandar), and sometimes to indicate this renowned Iranian king himself. In allusions such as *Khatam-e-Jam* (the seal of Jam), *Nageen-e-Jam* (the gemstone of Jam), *Anghushtar-e-Jam* (the ring of Jam), and *Takht-e-Jam* (the throne of Jam), the word refers to Prophet Solomon. *Aina-e-Jam* (the mirror of Jam) refers to Alexander. Meanwhile, *Bazm-e-Jam* (the assembly of Jam), *Jaam-e-Jam* (the goblet of Jam), *Jashn-e-Jam* (the festival of Jam), and *Saghar-e-Jam* (the wine-cup of Jam) allude to the Iranian king, Jamshid. In all these expressions, the full name Jamshid can also be substituted for Jam.

Legend has it that this king possessed a magnificent wine goblet engraved with seven horizontal lines. When the goblet was filled to the very first, uppermost line, no one but Jamshid had the capacity to drink from it. This top line, near the rim, is known as *Khat-e-Jaur*. The remaining lines are sequentially named as follows: *Khat-e-Baghdad*, *Khat-e-Basra*, *Khat-e-Azraq* (also known as *Khat-e-Siyah*, *Khat-e-Shab*, and *Khat-e-Sabz*), *Khat-e-Shukriya*, *Khat-e-Ashk*, *Khat-e-Kasagar*, and *Khat-e-Farodina*. Furthermore, *Takht-e-Jamshid* (Persepolis), one of the most magnificent ancient monuments in Iran, stands as a lasting memorial to this king.

Another king who ruled over Iran was Zahhak. He is infamous for his tyranny, oppression, and relentless bloodshed. Legend has it that two monstrous snakes had grown out of his shoulders, and their survival required a daily diet of human flesh. Every day, Zahhak would have people executed to provide sustenance for these serpents. The literary allusion *Maar-e-Zahhak* (the snakes of Zahhak) refers directly to this dark myth. Ultimately, this tyrant was slain at the hands of Faridun.

Faridun is celebrated for his immense greatness and majesty. When poets wish to extol a king's grandeur, they often describe him as *Faridun-Farr* (possessing the glory of Faridun). During Zahhak’s oppressive reign, there lived a blacksmith named Kaveh, a resident of Isfahan. Zahhak had ruthlessly murdered four of Kaveh's children. The masses were already pushed to the brink of despair by Zahhak’s tyranny. Witnessing these atrocities, a fierce spirit of rebellion ignited in Kaveh's heart. He shut down his forge, took the leather apron he used to spread beneath his anvil, and hoisted it onto a wooden pole to serve as a banner. Beating a drum and loudly decrying Zahhak’s cruelties, he marched into the streets. The terms *Derafsh-e-Kaviani*, *Alam-e-Kaviani*, *Parcham-e-Kaviani*, and *Akhtar-e-Kaviani* all refer to this iconic standard of rebellion.

The people of Iran, exhausted by Zahhak’s relentless oppression, rallied under this banner. Kaveh led this newly formed army forward, eventually clashing with Zahhak’s forces. Zahhak's armies suffered a crushing defeat, and Kaveh went on to conquer all of Iran. However, he refused to claim the throne for himself. Instead, Faridun—who was the son of Jamshid, and whose father had been murdered by Zahhak—was crowned king of Iran. Throughout these battles, the *Derafsh-e-Kaviani* was carried at the vanguard of the army. A succession of victories firmly established the belief that this banner was highly auspicious. After Kaveh’s death, Faridun, and subsequently other Iranian kings, adorned the leather flag with precious jewels. Up until the reign of Yazdegerd, this standard proudly led the Iranian army into every battle. During the caliphate of Umar, the flag finally fell into the hands of the Muslims; its jewels were distributed as spoils, and the leather was burned to ashes.

Kaykhusraw was another renowned ruler of Iran. Legend has it that he crafted a special goblet inscribed with geometric lines. Just as the markings on an astrolabe are used to determine the altitude of stars, the lines on this goblet revealed the movement of celestial bodies, allowing one to foresee future events. When our poets allude to this goblet, they use the following terms: *Jam-e-Kaykhusraw*, *Jam-e-Jahan Numa*, and *Jam-e-Jahan Bin*.

During the Kayanid dynasty, Iran and Turan were locked in constant warfare. Fighting on behalf of the Iranians, a warrior from Sistan (or Zabulistan) achieved immense fame through his glorious exploits. This warrior was Rustam. He is also known by the titles *Piltan* and *Tahamtan*. Because he was the son of Zal, the epithet *Pur-e-Zal* also refers to him. Rustam is the central hero of Firdausi’s *Shahnameh*. He always carried a mace, famously known as *Gurz-e-Rustam*. Since the head of this mace was shaped like a bull's head, it is also called *Gurz-e-Gawsar*. His legendary horse was named Rakhsh, and his son was Sohrab. As fate would have it, father and son faced each other in battle, neither recognizing the other. Rustam only discovered the tragic truth after he had fatally wounded Sohrab, when it was already too late.

Rustam repeatedly clashed with the armies of Afrasiyab, the king of Turan. Once, Kaykavus, a highly celebrated king of Iran, was captured by demons and imprisoned in the fortress of Mazandaran. Rustam set out to rescue the king. The journey was incredibly treacherous, and at every stage, he had to confront a new, terrifying ordeal. In the language of the *Shahnameh*, these seven stages are famously known as the *Haft Khwan*. In addition to the *Haft Khwan-e-Rustam*, there is another set of seven labors known as the *Haft Khwan-e-Isfandiyar*. King Arjasp had abducted Isfandiyar’s two sisters and imprisoned them in a fortress called Ruin Dizh. When Isfandiyar embarked on a journey to rescue them, he too encountered seven harrowing and perilous trials along the way. The seven stages Isfandiyar conquered to successfully free his sisters are thus renowned as the *Haft Khwan-e-Isfandiyar*.

As mentioned earlier, Rustam’s father was Zal. Zal was also known as Dastan, which is why Rustam earned the title *Rustam-e-Dastan*. Zal had been raised in a mountain cave by the mythical bird, the Simurgh. When Zal came of age, the Simurgh gave him one of its feathers, instructing him to cast it into a fire whenever he needed help, promising to appear at the scent of the burning feather. Whenever Rustam faced an insurmountable crisis, the Simurgh was summoned using this feather to seek its counsel. Rustam’s grandfather was named Sam, and his great-grandfather was Nariman. Rustam had a half-brother named Shaghad, who harbored deep jealousy toward him. Shaghad secretly dug seven wells at short intervals, filled them with sharp weapons, and camouflaged them with brushwood. Under the guise of a hunting expedition, he then lured Rustam to the exact spot where these hidden traps lay.

Riding his horse, Rustam fell into the first well, but his steed managed to leap out. He then fell into the second. After miraculously leaping out of six consecutive wells, they plunged into the seventh. By this time, both Rustam and his horse were fatally wounded, and Rustam ultimately breathed his last in that very well. Poets allude to this tragic betrayal using the term *Chah-e-Rustam* (The Well of Rustam). Similar to *Chah-e-Rustam*, another common allusion is *Chah-e-Bezhan*. Bezhan was the son of Gev and the nephew of Rustam. He had fallen in love with Manizheh, the daughter of Afrasiyab. As punishment, he was imprisoned in a pitch-black well, which came to be known as *Chah-e-Bezhan*. Eventually, it was Rustam who rescued him from this captivity.

Siyavash was the son of Kaykavus. Tormented by the false accusations and taunts of his stepmother, he fled to his father’s arch-enemy, Afrasiyab, the king of Turan. Initially, Afrasiyab welcomed him warmly and even gave him his daughter in marriage. Later, however, manipulated by another of his sons-in-law, Afrasiyab had Siyavash unjustly executed. The term *Khun-e-Siyavash* (The Blood of Siyavash) is an allusion to this tragedy, used in literature to symbolize the shedding of innocent blood. Another celebrated king of Iran was Bahram Gur, renowned for his exceptional horsemanship and javelin skills. He was an avid hunter, particularly fond of hunting the *gurkhar* (wild ass), which earned him the epithet Bahram Gur. Our poets frequently invoke his name in their verses.

Noshirwan is celebrated as the most just king of Iran. His magnificent palace is known as *Iwan-e-Kasra*, also referred to as *Taq-e-Kasra*. In the context of these allusions, the title Kasra should be understood as synonymous with Noshirwan. When the construction of this grand palace began, there was an old woman’s hut situated on one side of the site. The royal officials wished to purchase the plot so that the palace’s structure would not be asymmetrical, but the old woman refused to part with her land. The officials attempted to forcefully evict her, but Noshirwan intervened, declaring, I do not wish to seize my subjects' land through tyranny. I do not care if my palace remains crooked. Whenever our poets extol *Adl-e-Noshirwani* (The Justice of Noshirwan), this old woman is invariably mentioned. Noshirwan’s son was Hormuz, and Hormuz’s son was Parviz, famously known as Khusraw Parviz. Our poets frequently allude to this king as well. He was far wealthier than any other Iranian monarch, possessing eight legendary treasures: *Ganj-e-Arus*, *Ganj-e-Bad Awurd* (or *Ganj-e-Shaygan*), *Ganj-e-Diba Khusrawi*, *Ganj-e-Afrasiyab*, *Ganj-e-Sokhta*, *Ganj-e-Khazra*, *Ganj-e-Shad Awurd*, and *Ganj-e-Bar*.

This king owned a magnificent, pure black steed named Shabdiz. For a time, Khusraw ruled with wisdom and statesmanship, but he eventually surrendered to a life of hedonism, gathering a multitude of beautiful women in his palace. During this period of indulgence, he heard tales of the breathtaking beauty of Shirin, the niece of Mahin Banu, the Queen of Armenia. Khusraw sought the assistance of a close courtier named Shapur, who was a master painter. Shapur painted several portraits of Khusraw in various attires and poses. Carrying these portraits, he traveled to Armenia. He secretly hung the paintings from the trees in a garden that Shirin frequented for leisure. When Shirin’s eyes fell upon the portraits, she was instantly captivated. Upon spotting Shapur, she inquired about the paintings. Shapur described Khusraw’s charm and physical beauty with such eloquent exaggeration that she agreed to travel to Khusraw and marry him. Thus, Shirin ultimately entered the palace of Khusraw.

Khusrau loved her more than all the other beautiful women in his palace. It is said that Shirin had a great fondness for fresh milk. On the outskirts of the city stood a mountain named Koh-e-Behistun, behind which flocks of goats used to graze. Their milk was brought to Shirin’s palace, but transporting it from such a distance was a difficult task. A renowned stonecutter named Farhad was commissioned to carve a channel through the mountain all the way to the palace, so that milk from the pastures could be poured directly into it and flow straight to Shirin. As it happened, Farhad was deeply infatuated with Shirin, and tales of his love had already become widely known. Hoping to get rid of him, Khusrau assigned him this impossible task, promising that if he succeeded, Shirin would be his.

Khusrau was certain that Farhad would never be able to complete this monumental task. However, love and the hope of uniting with his beloved imbued Farhad with the strength of a thousand stonecutters. He braced himself and threw his entire being into the work. As he cut through the rocks of Behistun, consumed by love, Farhad carved statues of Shirin all along the way. Years later, when the project neared completion and the time came for Khusrau to fulfill his promise, the king sent a cunning old woman to Farhad. She arrived weeping and wailing, her hair disheveled, and delivered the false news that Shirin had died. The devastation Farhad felt upon hearing this cannot be put into words. Gripping the adze in his hand, he struck himself on the head with it and perished.

The legend of Shirin and Farhad is known to every child in Iran. Entire *masnavis* (epic poems) have been written about their story. Much like Layla and Majnun, poets have made the tale of these two lovers a central motif of romantic poetry. Farhad is famously titled *Koh-kan* (the Mountain-Hewer). *Juy-e-Shir* (the River of Milk) refers to the channel he carved from Behistun to Shirin’s palace. Sometimes, the term *Qasr-e-Khusrau* (the Palace of Khusrau) is used interchangeably with *Qasr-e-Shirin*. Barbad was the king’s exclusive court lutenist, a master of the musical arts. He invented thirty melodies, which remain famous under his name. The terms *Tarana-e-Barbad* or *Tarana-e-Barbadi* (the Song of Barbad) allude to this very musician. Khusrau Parviz’s throne was called *Taqdis*. He had inherited it from Fereydun. It measured 170 yards in length and 120 yards in width, and was encrusted with jewels from top to bottom. Its canopy featured a depiction of the twelve zodiac signs and the seven planets, designed so intricately that it could be used to track astronomical and astrological movements.

The names of two legendary painters, Mani and Behzad, appear frequently in poetry. The former was a Roman painter who eventually claimed prophethood, and the Manichaean sect traces its origins to him. The portfolio of illustrations he created is known as the *Artang* or *Arzhang*. (Some, however, claim that Arzhang was actually the name of a different painter). Behzad, on the other hand, was a master miniaturist during the reign of Shah Ismail Safavid. Poetic phrases like *Muraqqa-e-Mani* (the Album of Mani) and *Naqsh-e-Behzad* (the Painting of Behzad) are direct allusions to these two artists.

The allusions derived from the religion of the fire-worshippers, or Zoroastrians, are as follows: *Ahriman* and *Yazdan* represent the two cosmic forces that rule the world, locked in a perpetual struggle for dominance. The former is the force of evil, while the latter is the force of good. *Sadeh* refers to fire. When King Jamshid first witnessed sparks flying from a struck stone, he established a festival to celebrate the discovery. This festival is famously known as *Jashn-e-Sadeh*. Zoroastrians are known for their reverence for fire. In their fire temples, the sacred flame is kept burning continuously and is never allowed to go out. The term *Atash-e-Farsi* (the Persian Fire) alludes to this eternal flame. The handsome youths appointed to serve in the fire temples were known as *Mugh* (Magi), and their elder or superior was called *Pir-e-Mughan* (the Elder of the Magi). These same youths also served as cupbearers during banquets. Legend has it that a lizard-like creature is born within the flames of the fire temples, and its very survival depends on consuming fire. This creature is called a salamander, and references to it appear frequently in our poetry. Furthermore, when the sun enters the first degree of Aries, marking the first day of the Persian month of Farvardin, the Parsis celebrate. This day is known as *Nowruz*.

Nakhshab is a city in Turkestan, located a three-day journey from Samarkand. Here, a sage named Ibn Ata—also known as Ibn al-Muqanna—used a mysterious technique to create an artificial moon. Every evening, this moon would rise from a well in Nakhshab, ascending high enough to cast its light over a twelve-mile radius. This phenomenon continued uninterrupted for two months. This artificial moon is referred to as *Mah-e-Nakhshab* (the Moon of Nakhshab) or *Mah-e-Muqanna*, and the well from which it emerged is known as *Chah-e-Nakhshab* (the Well of Nakhshab). Another notable allusion is *Sang-e-Yadah*. In Turkestan, there was a sacred stone. Whenever there was a drought, the people of Turkestan would go out into the wilderness, place this stone on their hands, and pray for rain. Through its blessings, the rain would begin to fall. This stone is known as *Sang-e-Yadah*.

When the phrase *Kaman-e-Rustam* (the Bow of Rustam) appears in our poetry, it refers to a rainbow. Various classical poets are known by specific titles: *Lisan-ul-Ghaib* (the Tongue of the Unseen) refers to Hafiz Shirazi; *Bulbul-e-Amul* (the Nightingale of Amul) to Talib Amuli; *Bulbul-e-Shiraz* (the Nightingale of Shiraz) to Saadi Shirazi; *Hassan-e-Ajam* (the Hassan of Persia) and *Khallaq-ul-Ma'ani* (the Creator of Meanings) to Khaqani Shirvani; and *Andalib-e-Nishapur* (the Nightingale of Nishapur) to Naziri. *Shakh-e-Nabat* is the name of Hafiz Shirazi’s beloved, while Ayaz was the cherished and favored slave of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi. Whenever beauty and devotion are discussed, these names are invariably invoked. Alexander the Great (Sikandar) conquered Iran, and poets have chronicled his victories with great flair, attributing wondrous and extraordinary feats to him. He was eulogized to such an extent that people even began to regard him as a prophet. His quest for the Fountain of Youth (*Aab-e-Hayat*) is tied to the allusion of Khizr, while the Wall of Alexander (*Sadd-e-Sikandari*) is linked to the allusion of Zul-Qarnain. Another allusion associated with Alexander is that, under the guidance of the sage Balinas (Apollonius), he constructed a magnificent, three-hundred-yard-tall lighthouse in Alexandria. Atop it sat a mirror with a circumference of twenty-one yards and a diameter of seven yards. This mirror functioned like a telescope; anyone looking into it could see the entire city of Constantinople right before their eyes. The phrase *Aina-e-Sikandar* (the Mirror of Alexander) refers precisely to this marvel.

Having discussed literary allusions, we will now examine general allusions below.

General Allusions

The allusions used in everyday speech are drawn from a variety of sources. Some are rooted in history, while others are derived from the shared religious beliefs and superstitions of Hindus and Muslims. Some refer to the specific customs of these two communities, and others are based on widely known folktales and myths. These allusions often take the form of either idioms or proverbs. We categorize the former as allusive idioms and the latter as allusive proverbs. In terms of their origins, these allusions are a cultural blend, with Hindus and Muslims contributing to them equally. We will now present examples of all four aforementioned categories of allusions, which are as follows:

(First) Allusions Derived from History

The phrases *Dhai din ki badshahat* or *Arhai din ki badshahat* (a two-and-a-half-day reign) refer to a short-lived or unstable government. Students of Indian history are familiar with the incident where Emperor Humayun, after being defeated by Sher Shah, jumped into a river. Nizam, a water carrier, saved him from drowning. As a reward, Nizam asked Humayun for a two-and-a-half-day reign. During this brief rule, Nizam issued a round leather coin studded with a gold nail. This event gave rise to another allusion: *Chaam ke daam chalana* (to circulate leather coins). This idiom means to rule oppressively and extract labor by force. *Aurangzebi* is a medical allusion. It refers to a boil caused by melancholic humors that often remains unhealed for years and refuses to cure. When Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir laid siege to Golconda and the siege dragged on, the poor climate caused boils to break out among many soldiers. Despite treatment, these boils remained unhealed for a long time; hence, such a boil is called an *Aurangzebi*.

During the Mughal Empire, an army drawn from twenty-two districts would accompany the emperor's royal procession. This army was known as the *Baisi* (the twenty-two). The idiom *Baisi tootna* (the unleashing of the twenty-two) is derived from this, meaning to attack with one's entire army or to exert all of one's strength. *Topi walay* (the hat-wearers) refers to the Qizilbash soldiers who first arrived with Nadir Shah and later with Ahmad Shah Abdali. In Turkish, *Qizil* means red and *Bash* means head. Because these soldiers wore red hats, they were called Qizilbash, and the people of Delhi dubbed them *Topi walay*. There was a time when Afghan kings ruled Delhi. The small Pathan mosques built in close proximity to one another serve as relics of that era. Due to their fierce pride, the Pathans could not bear to be indebted to anyone, nor could they tolerate praying in a mosque built by someone else. The allusive idiom *Derh eent ki masjid banana* (to build a mosque of one and a half bricks) serves as a reminder of this historical quirk.

*Radha ko yaad karo* (remember Radha) is an idiom that means mind your own business or go do your own work. Sri Krishna had a beloved named Radha, and another named Kubja. Kubja would often utter this phrase with a sense of playful informality. Dark-complexioned men are idiomatically referred to as *Ravan ki sena* (Ravana's army). Ravana, the king of Lanka who waged war against Lord Ramchandra, commanded an army of dark-skinned men who wore black uniforms. For this reason, during the Ramlila—a theatrical reenactment of this epic—the soldiers of Ravana's army are dressed in black. The name *Rustam* is used idiomatically to denote a brave person, as in the sarcastic phrase, You are the only Rustam here, or Why didn't your bravery (*Rustami*) work here? Phrases like *Rustam ka bacha khan* (the son of Rustam) and *Rustam ka sala* (the brother-in-law of Rustam) are also commonly used. *Chhupa Rustam* (a hidden Rustam) is another idiom with two distinct meanings. First, it refers to a mischievous person who outwardly appears innocent. Second, it describes someone who is a master of their craft, whose true skills are only revealed when the time is right.

Plato (*Aflatoon*), the famous Greek philosopher, was also a master of wrestling. Consequently, just as the name Rustam is used to denote someone powerful and formidable, terms like *Aflatoon* and *Aflatoon ka bacha* (the son of Plato) are also prevalent in the same context. The term *Sikha Shahi* refers to an era of injustice and lawlessness; this allusion harkens back to the period of Sikh rule. Similarly, *Nadir Shahi* or *Nadir Gardi* denotes a time of severe mismanagement and chaos, reflecting the state of the country during the reign of Nadir Shah. The phrase *Tana Shahi mizaj* (a Tana Shahi temperament) points to the extreme fastidiousness characteristic of Abul Hasan Tana Shah, the ruler of Golconda. *Takht-e-Taus* (the Peacock Throne) is an allusion to Emperor Shah Jahan's legendary throne, which cost sixty million rupees to build, was heavily encrusted with jewels, and featured a peacock standing with its feathers fanned out at the top.

Akhfash was a renowned Arabic grammarian who kept a pet goat. He would recite Arabic verb conjugations in front of it. If the goat nodded its head, he assumed he had memorized the lesson; if not, he would begin rote-learning it all over again. When the goat was eventually slaughtered, it was discovered that it had no brain in its skull. Because of this, a person who nods in agreement without actually understanding anything is called *Buz-e-Akhfash* (Akhfash’s goat). The titles *Lakh Bakhsh* or *Lakh Data* (the bestower of hundreds of thousands) are used for someone who is exceptionally generous. Originally, this was the title of Qutbuddin Aibak, a slave of Shahabuddin Ghori who ascended to the throne after his master's death. Tales of his immense generosity remain on the lips of the public to this day. Even today, some Hindus revere him, with many setting up small shrines in various places to offer him worship.

The name *Halaku* is used to describe a cruel and ruthless man. This allusion points to Hulagu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, who famously sacked and devastated Baghdad. The term *Tor wali* refers to an arrogant woman, while *Torna jatana* means to boast or show off. *Shuru-e-Tora* is another idiom, which denotes an ostentatious display of piety and constant religious nitpicking in everyday matters. *Tora* was originally the name of Genghis Khan’s code of laws, which prescribed severe punishments for the violation of any rule. All of these idioms are derived from this single word, *Tora*.

*Ghar ka bhedi Lanka dhaye* (An insider brings down Lanka) is an allusive proverb. Ravana’s brother, Vibhishana, defected to Lord Ramchandra, revealing many secrets of the fortress of Lanka and assisting in its conquest. Today, this proverb is used to signify that the betrayal of a confidant causes the greatest harm.

(Second) Allusions Derived from Common Beliefs and Superstitions

When a person sets out on a journey, a coin is often tied to their arm. Once the traveler reaches their destination safely, that money is distributed among the Syeds (descendants of the Prophet). This is known as *Imam Zamin ka rupiya* (the coin of the Guarantor Imam). Here, the Imam refers to Hazrat Ali Raza, the eighth Imam. It is a common belief that if a coin dedicated to his name is tied to a traveler's arm, the Imam becomes the guarantor of their safety. The phrase *Indar ka akhara* (Indra's court) refers to a place where beautiful women gather to sing and dance. Hindus consider King Indra to be *Swarg Pati*—the lord of heaven—before whom celestial maidens constantly sing and dance. This idiom is rooted in that mythological concept. *Bijli ki talwar* (a sword of lightning) refers to an exceptionally sharp and lethal sword. There is a popular superstition that in certain areas where lightning strikes frequently, local blacksmiths gather large quantities of iron and leave it out in the open fields. The belief is that when lightning strikes the iron, it becomes perfectly tempered. It is said that no other blade can rival the sharpness and temper of a sword forged from this lightning-struck iron.

There is a common superstition that if a person crosses a path right after a cat has walked across it, they are bound to get into a fight or argument. This belief gave rise to the idiom *billi alangna* (stepping over a cat), which means to approach someone with the intent to quarrel. If someone starts speaking aggressively or making snide remarks the moment they arrive, people often ask them, Have you come after stepping over a cat? In Hinduism, *Bhairav* is a name for Lord Shiva, specifically referring to his fierce and wrathful manifestation. Hindus believe that his anger brings about utter destruction and ruin. This belief is the origin of the idiom *Bhairon nachna* (the dance of Bhairav), which means for a place to become utterly desolate or ruined.

Uneducated Muslim women often invoke and revere the names of various saints, mystics, and fairies. These include Lal Pari (the Red Fairy), Sabz Pari (the Green Fairy), Zard Pari (the Yellow Fairy), Siyah Pari (the Black Fairy), Asman Pari (the Sky Fairy), Darya Pari (the River Fairy), and Noor Pari (the Fairy of Light). They also invoke figures like Zain Khan, Sadr Jahan, Nanhe Miyan, Shah Darya, Shah Sikandar, Sheikh Saddu, Mamu Allah Bakhsh, Syed Barahna, Pir Hatile, Shah Madar, Pir Ghaib, and the *Chalis Tan* or *Chihal Abdal* (the Forty Saints), whose very existence is believed to sustain the world. Women often summon the spirits of these fairies or saints to possess them. A woman who practices this ritual will sit on a Thursday, adorned with perfume, jewelry, and fine clothes, and listen to music. When a fairy or spirit possesses her, she begins to sway and shake her head. Other women then present their needs and wishes to her, and she answers each of their questions. This method of summoning spirits is known as holding a *baithak* (séance) or performing *hazirat* (summoning). Allusions to these practices directly reference this specific set of beliefs held by these women.

Similarly, lower-caste Hindus also summon deities, gods, or a *bir* (spirit) to possess them. A man who performs this ritual is called a *bhagat*, and a woman is called a *bhagatani*. A *bir* refers to a jinn or malevolent spirit that a sorcerer unleashes upon someone to cause them harm. Muslims refer to such a spirit as a *muwakkil*. This concept gave rise to idioms like *bir bithana* (to seat a spirit) and *bir daurana* (to unleash a spirit). The words *uran khatola* (flying bedstead) and *bawan* or *biman* (flying chariot) allude to the Hindu belief that the gods traveled from one place to another on a flying throne. This throne was carried through the air by the wind. In Hindi, *Patal* refers to the lowest realm beneath the earth. Hindu cosmology divides *Patal* into seven distinct subterranean realms. Each realm is inhabited by living beings. The idiom *Patal tak ki khabar lana* (to bring news from the depths of Patal) is derived from this allusion. *Paras* (the Philosopher's Stone) is a mythical stone; popular legend dictates that if it touches iron, it turns the metal into gold.

The word *pichhalpai*, which refers to a female ghost or witch (*churail*), evokes the popular superstition that the feet of these supernatural beings are reversed, with the toes pointing backward and the heels facing forward. A *pari* (fairy) is a mythical, beautiful creature whose body resembles that of a woman, but with winged arms. *Paristan* is the name given to the realm where fairies reside. A *pari* is female, while a *dev* (giant/demon) or *pari-zad* (fairy-born) is male. Idiomatically, *Paristan* or *pariyon ka akhara* (an assembly of fairies) refers to a gathering filled with exceptionally beautiful people. Much like a *bir*, a *pawan* also refers to an evil spirit dispatched by a sorcerer to harm someone. This word has given rise to idioms such as *pawan bithana* (to seat a spirit) and *pawan daurana* or *chalana* (to unleash a spirit). *Bhoots* (ghosts) are spirits that have separated from their physical bodies and wander aimlessly through the world. A male spirit is called a *bhoot*, while a female spirit is known as a *bhutni*. It is a common belief that ghosts can possess people. Alongside the idiom *bhoot charhna* (to be possessed by a ghost), the phrase *bhoot utarna* (to exorcise a ghost) has also entered the language, stemming from the belief that a ghost can be banished from a person's mind through the power of incantations.

In Islamic tradition, the Seven Seas traditionally refer to the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, and the Black Sea. In contrast, Hindu mythology describes the Seven Seas as being made of different substances: the first of saltwater, the second of milk, the third of clarified butter (*ghee*), the fourth of yogurt, the fifth of wine, the sixth of sugarcane juice, and the seventh of honey. *Sifli amal* (dark magic) is a type of sorcery performed with the assistance of demons and jinns. Conversely, *ulvi amal* (celestial magic) involves seeking aid from the stars and angels. These two terms encapsulate the general public's beliefs regarding magic. The names of God are categorized into two types. The first are *Jalali* (majestic) names, which express divine wrath and grandeur. The second are *Jamali* (beautiful) names, which reflect divine mercy and grace. When a *Jalali* name of God is recited and blown over the back of an unsheathed sword, the intention is to destroy an enemy. This specific ritual is also referred to as *sifli*. It is said that if one is careless in reciting the name, the spell backfires and brings destruction upon the practitioner. This phenomenon is known as *sifli ka ulat jana* (the backfiring of dark magic).

The concept of the *saanp ka man* (the serpent's jewel) reflects a popular myth that when a snake is pleased, it spits out a luminous gem and places it in the forest. The gem's radiance is said to rival that of a full moon. Guided by this light, the snake roams for miles. Legend has it that whoever possesses the serpent's jewel remains protected from all calamities. Fire cannot burn them, nor can water drown them. *Shab-e-chiragh* (the night-lamp) is a similar concept. It is said to be a mythical jewel. When the river-cow emerges at night to graze, it spits this jewel out and grazes by its illumination. Once it finishes grazing, it places the jewel back in its mouth and dives back into the river. In the term *Shab-e-Barat* (the Night of Records/Salvation), the word *barat* refers to sustenance or destiny. This reflects the belief that on this night—the fourteenth or fifteenth of the Islamic month of Sha'ban—angels calculate the lifespans and destinies of human beings for the coming year and distribute their sustenance accordingly.

In Hinduism, *Sat Yug* is the first age of the world, an era defined entirely by truth and righteousness, with no trace of falsehood. The duration of this age is said to be 1,728,000 years. In stark contrast is the era known as *Kalyug*. This age is believed to last for 432,000 years. It is an age where nothing but sin and deceit will prevail. While there are also the *Treta Yug* and *Dwapar Yug*, *Sat Yug* and *Kalyug* are the most well-known among the general public. In Hindu belief, *Lakshmi* is the goddess of wealth. The idiom *Lakshmi ghar mein aana* (Lakshmi entering the house) means to be blessed with great fortune and prosperity. The allusive proverb *Lanka mein jo chhota so bawan hi gaz ka* (Even the smallest in Lanka is fifty-two yards tall), or *Lanka se jo nikla so bawan gaz ka* (Whoever comes from Lanka is fifty-two yards tall), is used to describe a place where everyone, young and old alike, is wicked and mischievous. This stems from the Hindu belief that the island of Lanka was inhabited by demons of gigantic proportions. Even their children were no less than fifty-two yards tall, and they were inherently rebellious and wicked by nature.

*Mir Bhajri ki karhai* (the cauldron of Mir Bhajri) is an allusion derived from the culture of the *hijra* (transgender/eunuch) community. Mir Bhajri, also known as Mir Bhoji, was the founding figure of the *hijra* lineage. The community prepares a sacred offering (*niyaz*) in his name. They believe that if an outsider eats the *halwa* from this consecrated cauldron, they will involuntarily begin to dance, sway, and adopt the mannerisms of a *hijra*, finding no peace until they fully join the community.

In popular imagination, the *Yuha* or *Yuhya* is a mythical snake. It is said that after a thousand years, it lets out a single cry and falls silent. After another thousand years, it cries out once more and goes quiet again. Upon the third time—that is, after three thousand years—it acquires the power to assume any shape or form it desires, gaining the ability to transform into a human or an animal. There is also a common belief that a jinn is born alongside every human being and remains with them forever. This entity is known as a *Hamzad* (a companion spirit or doppelgänger). It is believed that through specific occult practices, one can bring this spirit under control and command it to do one's bidding.

In Hindu mythology, there is an invisible, mythical entity that constantly moves around the world, shifting from one direction to another. For instance, on Saturdays, it resides in the east; on Thursdays, in the south; on Tuesdays, in the north; on Sundays, in the west—and so forth. Hindus call this mythical presence *Dishashool*. According to belief, traveling in the direction where *Dishashool* is located on any given day brings misfortune and hardship. A traveler must ensure that *Dishashool* remains either to their left or behind them. Encountering it head-on or having it on one's right side is considered highly inauspicious.

*Alop Anjan* is a magical kohl (eyeliner); whoever applies it can see everyone, but remains invisible to others. It is also known as *Surma-e-Sulaiman* (the Kohl of Solomon). Similarly, *Ganga Para* is a magical pill crafted by yogis. It is said that placing this pill in one's mouth grants the power of flight, allowing the yogis to fly wherever they wish.

Third: Allusions that refer to specific cultural customs.

Among Muslim women, there is a tradition where, following the *Nikah* (marriage ceremony), the bride and groom are seated facing each other with their heads touching, draped together under a red shawl. A mirror and a copy of the Quran, opened to *Surah Al-Ikhlas*, are placed between them. This ceremony is known as *Aarsi Mushaf*. *Aarsi* means mirror, and its purpose is to allow the newlyweds to catch a glimpse of each other's faces. The inclusion of *Surah Al-Ikhlas* symbolizes a prayer for lifelong *ikhlas* (sincerity and devotion) between the couple.

*Dev Uthan* is a Hindu ritual celebrated on the eleventh day (Ekadashi) of the bright half of the Kartik month. According to Hindu belief, Lord Vishnu sleeps for four months leading up to this date. On this day, Hindus clean and plaster a designated spot, decorating it with intricate patterns using chalk and red ochre. They place items of worship there and cover them with a metal tray. A woman of the household, or a Brahmin woman, rhythmically beats the tray with her hands while singing hymns in praise of Vishnu, chanting, Awake, O Deity!

*Swayamvar* is the name of an ancient Hindu tradition. Whenever a suitable groom was sought for a maiden from a royal or noble family, invitations were sent out to various kings and aristocrats. On an appointed date, the suitors would gather. The young woman would enter the grand assembly, observe the feats and displays of the princes and noblemen, and then place a garland of flowers around the neck of the man she chose as her husband.

*Moochon ka Kunda* is an allusion to a specific custom among Muslim women. When a young boy's mustache first begins to appear, his mother celebrates this coming-of-age milestone by hosting a *niyaz* (a sacred offering of food) dedicated to the Lady of Paradise (Hazrat Fatimah), gathering relatives together for the occasion.

*Ameen* is a ceremony held when a child completes the recitation of the Holy Quran, or a significant portion of it. The teacher and all the students from the *maktab* (traditional school) where the boy studies visit his home to recite a special poem aloud. One student leads the recitation, while the rest call out Ameen in unison after every couplet. Following the poem, a prayer is offered. Sweets are distributed, and the boy's parents present a monetary gift to the teacher according to their means.

*Ratjaga* (night vigil) is another custom observed during weddings, birthdays, *Bismillah* ceremonies (initiation of a child's education), or other festive occasions. Women gather and stay awake throughout the night. Festive foods are fried during the night, and the next day, prayers for God's blessings are recited over sweet fritters (*gulgulay*) and bread (*rahm*). Following this, a *niyaz* dedicated to Hazrat Fatimah is offered over sweet rice (*zarda*) or plain boiled rice (*khushka*).

There is also a unique wedding custom among Muslim women known as *Nobatain Haiwana*. The word *nobat* is a corruption of *nabat* (rock sugar). In this ritual, nine pieces of rock sugar are placed on the bride's shoulders, elbows, knees, back, and hands. The groom is then instructed to pick up these pieces one by one using only his mouth, without using his hands. This is essentially a superstitious charm, intended to ensure that the groom remains forever obedient to his bride.

*Taray Dikhana* (Showing the Stars) is a postpartum ritual. On the night of the *Chhatti* (the sixth day after childbirth), the new mother is brought out into the courtyard to look at the stars. Two women accompany her as guards, holding swords in their hands. With her baby in her lap and a copy of the Quran resting on her head, the mother looks up at the sky and counts seven stars. The women believe that performing this ritual protects the mother from the fear of jinns and fairies.

*Biwi ki Sahnakk* (The Lady's Clay Plate) is another notable custom. Often, during weddings or upon the fulfillment of a vow, women offer a *niyaz* dedicated to Hazrat Fatimah. Strict protocols are observed during this ritual. Only pious, married women whose first husbands are still alive (*suhagans*) are allowed to participate. If a woman has been married twice, she is excluded from the gathering. Furthermore, it is considered highly meritorious to serve this consecrated food to *Syedanis* (women descending from the Prophet's lineage). This tradition has been practiced since the reign of Emperor Jahangir.

*Phool Hona* (Becoming Flowers) is a ritual performed on the third day after a person's death. In Hindu tradition, on the third day after cremation, the remaining bones of the deceased—referred to as *phool* (flowers)—are gathered and immersed in the Ganges River. Among Muslims, the third day after death is marked by the *Fatihah* (memorial prayer). The Islamic declaration of faith (*Kalimah*) is recited over roasted chickpeas to transfer spiritual reward to the soul of the departed. During the *Fatihah*, a fragrant paste (*argaja*) and fresh flowers are brought out. After reciting *Surah Al-Fatihah*, everyone present dips a flower into the bowl of *argaja*, and these scented flowers are then sent to be placed on the deceased's grave.

Beyond these, there are numerous other cultural ceremonies, such as *Bismillah* (initiation of learning), *Chhatti* (sixth day after birth), *Chauthi* (fourth day after the wedding), *Mangni* (engagement), *Satwansa* (seventh month of pregnancy), *Mehndi* (henna ceremony), *Bari* or *Sachaq* (exchange of bridal gifts), and *Chaliswan* (fortieth day of mourning), among others.

Fourth: Allusions based on fictional anecdotes.

*Ghatar-bood karna* is a common idiom used in everyday speech, meaning to completely botch or ruin the meaning of something. The origin story of this phrase goes that a foolish man was once reading the *Bustan* (The Orchard). When he reached the following couplet by the poet Saadi:

*Ke Saadi ke goy-e-balaghat rabood*

*Dar ayyam-e-Boobakr bin Saad bood*

[That Saadi, who carried away the ball of eloquence,

Lived during the days of Abubakr bin Saad.]

So, he asked his teacher the meaning of *ghatarbud*. He had mistakenly separated *bala* from the word *balaghat* (eloquence) and attached the remaining letters to the next word, *rubud*, assuming *ghatarbud* was a single word.

The idiom *Terhi Kheer* (crooked rice pudding) means a difficult task. It is said that someone once asked a blind man, Hafiz ji, would you like to eat some *kheer*? The blind man asked, What is *kheer* like? The man replied, It is white. What is white like? the blind man inquired. Like a crane, the man answered. And what is a crane like? the blind man asked. The man bent his hand at the wrist to mimic a crane's neck and said, Like this. The blind man felt the man's bent hand with his own and declared, This is a very crooked *kheer*. I won't be able to eat it.

*Chor ki darhi mein tinka* (a straw in the thief's beard) is an allusive proverb. The story goes that a man once stole a buffalo from a landlord. The judge lined up all the suspects, including the actual thief. He then instructed his guard, Arrest the man I point to. Following this, the judge announced aloud, Look, there is a straw in the thief's beard! The guilty thief, already paranoid, immediately reached up to check his beard. Through this reflexive action, he was identified and apprehended.

*Nimbu nichor* (lemon squeezer) is a term used for an uninvited guest. Once, a freeloader was staying at an inn. It was his habit that whenever a traveler sat down to eat, he would show up at the dining cloth carrying a lemon. Seeing the curry in front of the traveler, he would say, Sir, a lemon is the perfect complement to this dish. Squeeze it and see how it enhances the flavor. The poor traveler, out of sheer courtesy, would end up inviting him to share the meal. The word *tufaili* (freeloader or parasite) originated in a similar manner. Tufail was a poet from Kufa. It was his habit that whenever he saw people heading to a feast, he would tag along with them and shamelessly partake in the banquet.

*Nao mein khak urana* (kicking up dust in a boat) is an idiom that means to make a false accusation. The fable goes that a lion and a goat were once traveling together in a boat. The lion, intending to eat the goat, accused her, saying, Why are you kicking up dust in the boat? The goat replied, Sir, where is the dust here for me to kick up? Feigning anger, the lion roared, Are you calling me a liar? Let me show you the consequences of your insolence! With that, he attacked the goat, tore her apart, and devoured her.

*Neki kar aur darya mein daal* (Do good and cast it into the river). This proverb means to do good deeds selflessly, without worrying about whether you will receive a reward for them or not. In the tales of Hatim Tai, it is written that a man used to throw loaves of bread into the river every day. God did not let his efforts go to waste. The detailed account of this event can be found in the epic of Hatim Tai.

*Ood bilao ki dheri* (the otter's pile) refers to a dispute that can never be resolved. It is said that when a group of otters hunt for fish together, they pile their catch on the riverbank. Afterward, they divide the fish into individual shares. However, inevitably, one of the otters feels his share is too small and scrambles all the piles together. The shares are then divided all over again, only to meet the exact same fate. In short, they bicker endlessly, and the matter is never settled.

*Namazi ka taka* (the worshipper's coin) refers to an inappropriate or wicked act that is bound to be punished sooner or later. The story goes that a mischievous boy used to pull people's legs while they were offering their prayers. Once, when he pulled a worshipper's leg during prostration, the man, instead of scolding him, finished his prayer and quietly handed the boy a *taka* (a copper coin). His intention was to encourage the boy's bad habit so that he would eventually face severe consequences elsewhere. Having developed a taste for the coin, the boy coincidentally tried the same prank on a hot-blooded Pathan. As soon as the Pathan finished his prayer, he drew his sword from its sheath and struck off the mischievous boy's head.

*Aankhon ki suiyan reh gayi hain* (Only the needles in the eyes remain). This phrase means that the vast majority of a task has been completed, and only a tiny fraction is left. The legend goes that a young merchant was involved with a sorceress who was deeply jealous of his wife. One day, she threw a magical packet intended to harm his virtuous wife, but it accidentally landed on the young merchant himself. The moment it struck him, his entire body was pierced with countless needles. Overcome by the excruciating pain, the young merchant fell unconscious.

After offering her morning prayers, his wife discovered her husband's condition and immediately set to work pulling out the needles. When her fingers grew sore from plucking them out, she began pulling them out with her lips. Only a few needles remained when the time for the afternoon (*Zuhr*) prayer arrived. She said to her maidservant, I am going to offer my afternoon prayers. Only a little bit of work is left; take my place and finish it. The maidservant began removing the needles, and before the wife could finish her prayers, all the needles had been extracted. The young merchant regained consciousness. When he opened his eyes, he saw that his wife was not by his side, and it was the maidservant who was tending to him. Seeing this, he developed a sudden aversion to his wife; he took the maidservant as his wife and condemned his actual wife to serve as the maid.

*Bheegi billi batana* (to use a wet cat as an excuse) is an allusive idiom that means to make baseless excuses. The story goes that a man was sleeping in the veranda of his house at night with the curtains drawn. His servant was also sleeping off to one side in the same veranda. Several times, the master tried to send the servant outside to run an errand. Each time, the servant would invent a new excuse to avoid going out into the dark. Finally, the master said, It was raining in the courtyard earlier. Go outside and check if the rain has stopped or if it is still pouring. The servant replied from his bed, It is still raining. The master asked, How do you know? The servant answered, A cat just came inside from the courtyard. I ran my hand over its fur, and it was soaking wet.

The idiom *Jaunpur ka Qazi* (the Judge of Jaunpur) is used to describe a foolish person. It is said that in a local school, a teacher was once scolding one of his students. In a fit of anger, he yelled, You worthless boy! You do not appreciate my favor—I have turned you from a donkey into a human being! A potter, who happened to be passing by the school, overheard this. He immediately walked in and said to the teacher, I have a donkey too. It would be a great favor if you could turn him into a human being as well. The teacher instantly saw through the man's sheer stupidity. As a joke, he replied, If you pay me a hundred rupees and leave your donkey with me, I will turn him into a man in a year's time. The potter happily agreed to the condition. He left his donkey with the teacher and handed over the hundred rupees.

When he returned after a year, the teacher had already sold the donkey and pocketed the money. The potter said, Please return my donkey, whom you must have turned into a man by now. The teacher replied, I didn't just make him a man; I educated him and turned him into a scholar. He is now appointed as the Qazi of Jaunpur. Hearing this, the potter was overjoyed. He immediately took his whip and pack-saddle and set off for Jaunpur. The Qazi was holding court, and a case was being presented before him. The potter stood a short distance away and began showing the Qazi the whip and pack-saddle so that he would recognize his master and return to him. When the Qazi noticed this bizarre behavior, he sent a man to inquire about the reason. The potter narrated the entire story from beginning to end. When the Qazi realized what had happened, fearing public ridicule, he gave the potter a handsome sum of money to send him away, finally managing to rid himself of the man.

Sheikh Chilli refers to a person who concocts wildly impractical plans. People have invented this fictional character and attributed to him all sorts of tales involving far-fetched schemes and proposals. For example, it is said that a man once hired Sheikh Ji as a laborer. He handed him a basket full of glassware to deliver to a specific location. Along the way, Sheikh Ji set the basket down and began to daydream: With the wages I earn today, I will buy a rooster and a hen. I will have the hen sit on her eggs, which will hatch into many chicks. Once I have a large flock of chickens, I will sell them to buy a male and female goat, and I will breed them.

When the herd of goats grows, I will sell them and buy cows. The cattle will multiply in the same way. Then, I will sell the herd of cows and buy buffaloes. Once I have a large number of buffaloes, their trade will make me incredibly wealthy. I will marry into a noble family, seeking out a beautiful wife. I will always keep her under my strict control. If she ever disobeys me, I will plant a hard kick on her back. Sheikh Ji was so caught up in his imaginary anger that, instead of his fictional wife, his kick landed squarely on the basket, shattering all the glassware into pieces.

Lal Bujhakkad refers to a person who is always ready with an answer for everything and eager to offer his opinion on any matter. In reality, he is a fool, yet he considers himself the wisest of all men. Much like Sheikh Chilli, Lal Bujhakkad is a fictional character invented by the public, and all sorts of absurd, foolish opinions are attributed to him. For instance, it is said that the residents of the village where Lal Bujhakkad lived had never seen an elephant. One day, an elephant passed through the village, leaving its large footprints on the ground. The villagers, having never seen such an animal, were utterly baffled by the tracks. Unable to comprehend what could have made these marks, they brought Lal Bujhakkad to the spot and asked him to uncover the truth. He confidently declared, Oh, you fools! No one but me can solve this riddle. A deer tied millstones to all four of its hooves and hopped through here, leaving these marks on the ground.

Similarly, there is a story of a boy who was standing with his arms wrapped tightly around a pillar in his house. Meanwhile, his father walked in from outside, chewing on roasted chickpeas. Still hugging the pillar, the boy asked for some. The father poured the chickpeas into the boy's cupped hands. But now a problem arose: how was the boy to free his arms from the pillar? If he unclasped his hands, the chickpeas would fall to the ground, which he refused to let happen. The boy began to cry. The father, unable to think of a solution, ran to Lal Bujhakkad and explained the entire predicament. Twirling his mustache with pride, Lal Bujhakkad replied, Well, who else but me could come up with a solution for this? Go and dismantle the roof of your house. Once the roof is removed from above the pillar, you can easily pull the boy up through the top. Not a single chickpea will fall from his hands, and the boy will be safely freed from the pillar.

*Yek na shud, do shud* (One was bad enough, now there are two) is an allusive proverb. It is used when one bizarre or troublesome event is immediately followed by another. Legend has it that a sorcerer knew a spell that could raise the dead and allow him to speak with them. He also knew a second spell to return the dead to their slumber in the grave once the conversation was over. If a deceased person's family needed to uncover hidden secrets, they would go to this sorcerer and plead for his help. Using his magic, he would awaken the dead, ask the necessary questions, and then put them back to rest. On his deathbed, the sorcerer taught both spells to his apprentice. To test his new knowledge, the apprentice went to a grave and recited the first spell. The corpse awoke, began conversing with him, and answered every question. However, the apprentice happened to forget the second spell. As a result, the walking corpse began to follow him around. In a panic, the apprentice resurrected his master from his grave so that he could remind him of the counter-spell, but in his undead state, the master was unable to tell him anything. Just like the first corpse, this newly raised corpse also began following the apprentice. At that moment, this phrase spontaneously escaped his lips.

Similar to this, another Persian allusive proverb is commonly used in Urdu: *Gorba kushtan roz-e-awwal* (Kill the cat on the first day). The proverb implies that authority and dominance must be established from the very beginning. The story goes that two friends got married around the same time, and both ended up with ill-tempered wives. One wife completely dominated her husband, while the other proved to be incredibly obedient. The first friend asked the second how he had managed to subdue his bad-tempered wife. He replied, On the very first day, when my wife and I sat down to eat, a cat came and sat on the dining spread. I told it to go away, but it didn't move. I immediately got up and killed it. This incident struck terror into my wife's heart. She feared that a man who would kill a cat over such a minor disobedience would do God knows what to her. Hearing this, the first friend decided to try the same tactic. However, since his wife was already well-acquainted with his mild nature and had already established her dominance over him, the trick failed miserably. Upon hearing of his friend's failure, the second man remarked, Brother, *gorba kushtan roz-e-awwal*—establishing authority after the fact simply does not work.

*Kahan Raja Bhoj aur kahan Gangu Teli* (Where stands King Bhoj, and where stands Gangu the oil-presser) is another allusive proverb. It signifies that while there is no comparison between the mighty and the lowly, nothing is too strange for the hands of fate. Legend has it that when misfortune befell King Bhoj and his kingdom was snatched away, he was left to wander aimlessly. Begging for his survival, he once found his way into the palace of a queen. While he was still inside, a wooden statue miraculously swallowed the queen’s necklace, which had been hanging on a peg. Assuming Bhoj was the thief, the queen had him presented before the king, who ordered his hands and feet to be chopped off as punishment for the theft. Bhoj was lying in this state of utter helplessness when Gangu the oil-presser happened to pass by. Having no children of his own, Gangu considered this limbless man a blessing and took him home. He nursed Bhoj back to health and eventually assigned him the task of operating the oil press.

One night, he was working the oil press and singing the *Deepak Raga*. At that moment, the king's daughter ordered the palace lamps to be extinguished, but whenever they were put out, the power of the raga's notes would cause them to light up again. It was discovered that this was happening because someone was singing the *Deepak Raga* in Gangu Teli's house. The next morning, she stubbornly insisted that the king send a marriage proposal to Gangu Teli's home. Consequently, the marriage took place. After the wedding, by a stroke of fate, his hands and feet miraculously grew back. The wooden idol regurgitated the stolen necklace, and he regained his kingdom. After reclaiming his throne, Raja Bhoj always regarded Gangu Teli as his father and showered him with wealth.

**The Need to Expand the Scope of Allusions**

We have already discussed the literary and non-literary allusions of the Urdu language at length and provided examples of every kind. While we have not attempted to cover every single allusion in this essay, if all the allusions used in our poetry, prose, and everyday speech were compiled in one place, a single glance would lead anyone to the conclusion that their number is remarkably small. There are thousands of ideas for which we simply lack the appropriate vehicles of expression. In contrast, the developed languages of Europe possess such an abundance of allusions that dedicated dictionaries are compiled for them, where lexicographers arrange these allusions alphabetically and explain each one in detail.

Even though this abundance of allusions allows Europeans to articulate all manner of ideas through appropriate frameworks, their thirst remains unquenched. They actively seek out the mythological tales of different nations around the world. They investigate their religious beliefs and superstitions. They translate the histories of other cultures into their own languages and adapt both religious and secular folktales into their own linguistic molds. They master the poetic concepts of others, translate their dramas, and extract literary allusions from this vast repository. They do this to equip themselves with an ever-expanding vocabulary to express every conceivable thought and idea. In stark contrast, the speakers of our language remain rigidly conservative.

If the Persians or the Arabs have altered or modified a word from a foreign language, our people consider it perfectly acceptable. If the Iranians have coined a new word by attaching their own prefix or suffix to a foreign root, they view it with tolerance. If the Arabs have derived a verb from a foreign word, they do not turn up their noses at it. And if the Persians or Arabs have coined a new allusion based on some historical event or legend, they readily accept it.

However, if a compatriot of ours modifies a foreign word, attaches a Hindi prefix or suffix to an Arabic or Persian word, creates a new verb by adding an infinitive marker to an existing word, or employs a newly coined allusion, they are met with a barrage of objections, and all hell breaks loose. These purists continue to discard numerous words from the existing language and even take pride in doing so. Yet, they take no steps to expand our language, broaden the horizons of our literature, increase the vocabulary in our dictionaries, or enhance our capacity to express complex ideas.

There is not the slightest doubt that neglecting one's language is an unforgivable sin. The journalists, magazine editors, poets, essayists, and authors who have thus far shown apathy toward the language could, if they so chose, enrich it with new words, idioms, metaphors, terminology, and allusions. I will not dwell here on the general expansion of the language; my focus remains solely on allusions. The vast majority of our current allusions have been imported from Arabia and Iran. While a few Indian allusions do exist in everyday speech, their number is negligible. If we continue to harbor prejudice and aversion toward the languages and literatures of India, we have no right to claim Urdu as the lingua franca of the subcontinent.

If you open a German, French, or English dictionary, you will realize that they have drawn upon the languages and literatures of the entire world. You will not find a single religion, language, country, or nation whose essential vocabulary—pertaining to its beliefs, customs, superstitions, history, and literature—is absent from these advanced languages. It is as if they have transformed their respective literatures into universal literatures. Is it not a matter of shame for us that we have not yet proven our language worthy of even being called an Indian language? If we were broad-minded, if we lacked any trace of prejudice, if we truly loved our language, and if we wished to honor our homeland alongside our language, then it would be our duty to assimilate the essential vocabulary regarding the beliefs, superstitions, customs, history, and literature of all the diverse communities living in India. We should have expanded its scope to such an extent that no other contemporary Indian language could rival it.

Even if we do not possess the authority to alter everyday speech, it is certainly within our power to broaden the scope of our literature, making it accessible and relatable to all educated citizens of India. Both Hindus and Muslims have contributed to the creation of the Urdu language; why, then, does its literature bear only the hallmarks of Islamic literary traditions? There is no trace of Hindu literary heritage in either our prose or our poetry.

At this point, a critic might raise the objection that the religious beliefs of Hindus, their mythological tales, their omens and superstitions, and their apocryphal historical legends are not acceptable to Muslims, who are monotheists and rationalists. The answer to this is that our literature is already filled with hundreds of concepts that are acceptable neither from a religious nor a rational standpoint. If we are to strictly adhere to religion or pure logic, we would have to purge all such elements from our literature. But that is merely a rhetorical counter-argument. The true and fundamental answer is that such elements are incorporated into poetry and prose not because they are religiously or rationally factual, but because they serve as vehicles for expressing ideas. For instance, if one writes that a mythical giant stands with its chest puffed out like the Himalayas, ready to take India into its embrace, it cannot be deduced from this sentence that the writer actually believes in the existence of giants. The only intended meaning is that the towering Himalayan range envelops India from one side.

Similarly, if someone says, Employment has become the *Anqa* (a mythical bird), it simply means that jobs are impossible to find. It does not mean the speaker is declaring the actual extinction of the *Anqa*. Anyone who reads a novel or a play knows perfectly well that they are reading a work of fiction. Yet, when a humorous moment occurs, they laugh, and when they read a tragic scene, tears begin to stream from their eyes. Every poet, essayist, storyteller, and preacher is well aware of this psychological mechanism. Therefore, they present truths through the medium of fictional and imaginary tales that their audience is already familiar with. They do not care in the slightest whether the envelope in which they wrap and present their ideas is real or imaginary. Maulana Rumi has expressed this very point where he says:

*Khushtar aan bashad ke sirr-e-dilbaran*

*Gufta ayad dar hadith-e-deegaran*

[It is better that the secrets of the beloved

Be told through the tales of others.]

Therefore, our goal is to expand the range of expressive frameworks in our language. If, for this purpose, we incorporate allusions from Hindu religion, mythology, history, and literature, it will not negatively impact our own faith or intellect. Nor does anything compel us to believe in the literal existence of these concepts. Instead, this addition will yield the following benefits:

(1) We will become more capable than before of expressing diverse ideas.

(2) We will be cleared of the accusation that we avoid Hindu literature purely out of religious prejudice.

(3) Hindus will become more familiar with and drawn to our literature than before.

(4) Our language will truly deserve to be called an Indian language, and our literature will truly deserve to be called Indian literature.

(5) The foundation of Hindu-Muslim unity will be strengthened, and both nations will easily march forward together in the realm of patriotism.

Having reached this point, it is imperative that we examine the following repositories of Hindu culture to extract new allusions:

(1) The Ramayana

(2) The Mahabharata

(3) The history of Hindu rule

(4) Hindu legends and tales, such as Shakuntala, Nala and Damayanti, Vikramorvasiyam, etc.

(5) Hindu mythology

(6) Hindu customs and rituals

(7) The histories and philosophies of various Hindu sects.

Furthermore, we must draw upon the Islamic repository far more extensively than before. To do so, we should look into the following sources and extract allusions from them:

(1) The Holy Quran

(2) The Hadith (Prophetic traditions)

(3) General Islamic history

(4) The history of Islamic rule in India

(5) The *Masnavi* of Maulana Rumi

(6) *Alf Layla* (One Thousand and One Nights)

(7) The *Shahnameh* of Ferdowsi

(8) Famous tales of the Urdu language (such as the stories authored by Maulana Nazir Ahmad), *Bustan-e-Khayal*, *Dastan-e-Amir Hamza*, *Chahar Dervish*, *Araish-e-Mahfil* (the tale of Hatim Tai), *Fasana-e-Ajaib*, *Badr-e-Munir*, etc.

(9) Books on Islamic mysticism (Sufism)

In addition to the Hindu and Islamic repositories, allusions can also be found in the following material:

(1) Christian religious beliefs and rituals

(2) General British history

(3) The history of British rule in India

(4) Sikh religious beliefs and rituals

(5) Parsi (Zoroastrian) religious beliefs and rituals

(6) Buddhist religious beliefs and rituals

(7) Rajput history

(8) Maratha history

Examples of Modern Allusions

Here, we will mention only a few allusions as examples. Consider the following: The Black Hole (from the history of British India); Kingmaker (from the history of Islamic India); Aladdin's Lamp, *Tasma Pa* (from *One Thousand and One Nights*); The Black Death (from general European history); The Forty Thieves (from *One Thousand and One Nights*); Open Sesame! Close Sesame! (from *One Thousand and One Nights*); *Hammam-e-Baadgard* (from the tale of Hatim Tai); Khoji (from *Fasana-e-Azad*); Zahirdar Baig (from *Taubat-un-Nasuh*); Fitrat (from *Taubat-un-Nasuh*); Kaleem (from *Taubat-un-Nasuh*); Baud Lama (from Islamic history); Rustam Yak Dast (from Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh*); Rashk-e-Himar (from *Khudai Faujdar*); Khwaja Sag Parast (from *Chahar Dervish*); The White Demon (from Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh*); Gulabo (from *Khudai Faujdar*); The Mad Parliament (from general British history); Pagoda (from the Buddhist religion); Jaimal and Fatta (from Rajput history); The Eucharist / Lord's Supper (from the Christian religion); Nushaba (from the *Sikandar Nameh*); Jan-e-Alam's Parrot (from *Fasana-e-Ajaib*); The Mechanical Horse (from *Badr-e-Munir*); Nirvana (from the Buddhist religion); Dakhma / Tower of Silence (from the Parsi religion); Amrit (from the Sikh religion); Kirpan (from the Sikh religion); Zand Baf (from the Parsi religion); Mahabad (from Parsi history); Behnam (from the Parsi religion); Khoji's *Qarauli* (dagger) (from *Fasana-e-Azad*).

The Land of Rustam and Isfandiyar refers to Iran. The Land of the Rising Sun refers to Japan. The Celestial Empire refers to the Chinese Empire, and the Land of the Pharaohs refers to Egypt. Consider the Land of the Gods to be India. The Land of Spirituality is Asia, the Cradle of Materialism is Europe, and the Country of Millionaires is America. The Dark Ages and the Age of Reformation (from European history). The Dark Continent refers to Africa.

Allusions from Hindu Literature

The examples of new allusions we have provided are very few. If we search through the broader cultural repository, we will undoubtedly find many more. However, on this occasion, we specifically want to mention those allusions that can be drawn from Hindu literature. These can breathe a new soul into the body of our literature, and by adding them, we can truly call our language and literature the shared heritage of both nations. Cast a thoughtful glance at the following allusions and consider how they can be utilized in poetry and prose, and what kinds of ideas can be cast into these molds.

Savitri was the daughter of King Ashvapati. She was deeply in love with her husband, Satyavan. After their marriage, she learned that he had no more than a year to live. At the time of his death, she pleaded with Yama, the god of death, with such devotion and persistence that he refrained from taking Satyavan's soul. Yama is the deity of the souls of the dead. His complexion is green, and his garments are red. He holds a spear in one hand and a noose in the other. He rides a water buffalo. Yamapuri is the place where he resides, and Kalichi is the name of his palace. His servants are called Yamadutas. When someone dies, the Yamadutas bring their soul before him. The ledger of their good and bad deeds is opened. Then, a final judgment is passed regarding whether the soul should enter the stones, go to hell, or be reincarnated in the world in another form. Two terrifying dogs guard his pathway. They have four eyes and wide nostrils. They deliver the message of death on behalf of Yama.

Shatarupa is the very first woman created in the world, akin to Eve in the Islamic tradition. Lord Brahma divided his body into two parts. From one part, he created a man named Viraj. From the other part, he created a woman, and she is this Shatarupa.

Shakuntala is the mother of King Bharat. This is the very Bharat after whom India was named Bharatvarsha, and whose descendants fought the great war of the Mahabharata. She was the biological daughter of the renowned sage Vishvamitra, but was raised by the sage Kanva and came to be known as his daughter. When she came of age, King Dushyanta happened to pass by Sage Kanva’s ashram during a hunting expedition and instantly fell in love with her. Shakuntala married him but did not accompany him back to his kingdom. Upon his departure, the king gave her his signet ring as a token of his love. After the king left, Shakuntala remained entirely consumed by her love for him. One day, a visiting sage arrived to meet her foster father. Lost in her romantic reverie, Shakuntala failed to pay her respects to the visiting sage. Enraged, he cursed her, declaring that her husband would forget her. Filled with remorse, Shakuntala begged for forgiveness. The sage then modified his curse, stating that King Dushyanta’s memory of her would be restored the moment he laid eyes on his ring.

When Shakuntala realized she was pregnant, she set out to join her husband. Along the way, she stopped to bathe in a spring. Unbeknownst to her, the ring slipped from her finger and fell into the water. When she finally reached the king, he failed to recognize her. Left with no choice, her mother brought her back to the forest, where she gave birth to Bharat. Sometime later, a fisherman arrived at the very spring where Shakuntala had bathed. He caught a fish, and upon cutting it open, discovered a ring inside its belly. The fisherman took the ring to King Dushyanta, who immediately recognized it. In an instant, his memories of Shakuntala came rushing back. He then sent for her and their son, Bharat, bringing them from the forest to live with him.

Arjuna was the son of King Pandu, born to Queen Kunti. The tales of his bravery, martial prowess, and archery are legendary. With his arrows, he could halt the wind and the rain, and at will, he could make them rain down fire and water. On the battlefield, he would sometimes appear towering and at other times short; sometimes he seemed slender, and at other times, heavily built. Many princes and valiant warriors attended Draupadi’s *Swayamvara*, but none could win her hand save for him. The fire god, Agni, had bestowed his own bow upon him, while Lord Shiva granted him his formidable weapon, the Pashupatastra. Even the deities Varuna and Yama had gifted him specialized divine weaponry. The god Indra had given him a conch shell that, when blown, produced a sound like roaring thunder. During the Mahabharata war, he utterly overwhelmed the Kauravas, displaying extraordinary feats of courage and valor.

Due to a breach of a vow, he was forced into exile for twelve years. When King Yudhishthira released a sacrificial horse to roam freely through the territories of every king in India—asserting his supremacy as the paramount ruler—Arjuna followed the horse. His purpose was to wage war against any king who dared to challenge Yudhishthira’s claim by attempting to capture the animal. Consequently, Arjuna fought numerous kings and brought the horse back in complete safety. It was ultimately through his martial prowess that King Yudhishthira was acknowledged as a *Chakravartin* (universal monarch). Lord Krishna served as Arjuna’s charioteer during the Mahabharata war. Classical Urdu poets have frequently alluded to Arjuna’s mastery of archery and bowmanship in their verses.

The story of Sudyumna is found in the Puranas. It is recorded that Manu Vaivasvata deeply yearned for a son. To fulfill this desire, he performed a *Yajna* (sacrificial fire ritual) dedicated to the deities Varuna and Mitra. However, an error occurred during the ritual's proceedings, resulting in the birth of a girl instead of a boy. She was named Ila. Following Manu Vaivasvata’s fervent pleas, the gods transformed Ila into a boy, who was then named Sudyumna. Upon coming of age, Sudyumna happened to wander into a particular forest during a hunting trip—a forest that had been cursed by Lord Shiva. The effect of this curse was such that any man who set foot within its bounds would instantly turn into a woman. Consequently, the moment Sudyumna entered the forest, he was transformed back into a woman. Later, through the grace of Lord Shiva, a concession was granted: he would spend one month as a man and the alternating month as a woman. He went on to have children in both his male and female forms.

Urvashi was an *Apsara*—a celestial nymph of paradise. The deities Varuna and Mitra, angered by one of her actions, had cursed her, resulting in her banishment to earth. Here, King Pururavas—also famously known as Vikram—fell deeply in love with her. She agreed to become the king's wife, but only upon certain conditions. One such condition was that he must never appear naked before her, except during moments of intimacy. The second condition was that two pet rams, which she held very dear, must remain tied near her bed, and the king would be personally responsible for their safety. After some time, the god Indra desired for Urvashi to return to heaven. The celestial agents assigned to this task descended on a dark night and stole both rams.

When Urvashi cried out in alarm, the king, still unclothed, grabbed his sword and rushed out in pursuit of the thieves. At that precise moment, Indra’s agents caused a flash of lightning to illuminate the sky, revealing the king’s naked body to Urvashi. The condition was thus broken. She instantly vanished from the king's sight and returned to heaven. Devastated by her separation, Vikram began to wander aimlessly in grief. By chance, he eventually came across Urvashi bathing in a lake at Kurukshetra alongside four of her companions. At that time, she revealed to the king that she was pregnant, promising to return to him after a year had passed, though she would stay for only a single night. True to her word, she returned to the king once the year had elapsed. She handed over the son she had borne him, stayed for the night, and then departed once more. Finally, acting upon the counsel of the gods, the king performed a *Yajna*. As a reward for his devotion, he was granted permission to live eternally with Urvashi. The romance of Urvashi and Vikram has been eloquently immortalized by the poet laureate Kalidasa in one of his celebrated plays.

Surya refers to the Sun, who is also revered as a deity. He holds numerous titles, such as the Lord of the Bright Day, the Eye of the World, and the Bearer of Golden Rays. His chariot is drawn by seven yoked horses. He is described as short in stature, with red eyes and a copper-like complexion. His wife is Sanjna, the daughter of Vishwakarma. Unable to bear the blinding brilliance of his radiance, Sanjna had separated from him. In response, Vishwakarma placed Surya on a celestial lathe and shaved off portions of his brilliance from every part of his body except his feet. This process reduced his blinding light by an eighth, after which Sanjna was able to live with him once again. The Suryavanshi (Solar dynasty) kings trace their lineage directly back to Surya.

Som refers to the moon, which is also a deity. He is known as the nurturer of vegetation and the protector of worshippers. He married the twenty-seven daughters of Daksha. These daughters are known as the *Nakshatras*, or lunar mansions. The Chandravanshi (Lunar) dynasty traces its lineage back to Som. The chariot he rides has three wheels and is drawn by ten white horses. He has many attributive names, such as the One with Cool Rays, the One with White Rays, the Lord of the Stars, and the Illuminator of the Night.

Kam, also known as Kamdev, is the god of love. When God desired to create the world, Kam spontaneously emerged within His heart. He is the master of the maidens of paradise and celestial fairies. He carries a bow and arrows and is surrounded by throngs of nymphs and fairies. In his hand, he holds a red standard bearing the emblem of a fish on its flag. He has numerous attributive names, such as the Beautiful, the Blazing, the Joyous, the Playful and Lively, the Embodiment of Delight, the Beguiler of Men, the Candle of Spring, the Crackling Ember, the Staff of Wrath, the Weapon of Beauty, the Breaker of Peace, the Hedonist, the Mentor of the World, the Mine of Love, and the One Armed with Flowers.

Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth. When the gods and the asuras churned the ocean, Lakshmi emerged from the waters holding a lotus flower, alongside other jewels. When Sri Ramachandra incarnated, she manifested in the form of Sita; during the era of Sri Krishna, she took the form of Rukmini. As the goddess of wealth and majesty, she is worshipped everywhere. She is also called Hira, Indira, and Chanchala. Agni is an ancient deity who possesses three forms: the sun in the sky, lightning in the air, and fire on earth. He has seven tongues; during a *havan* (fire ritual), he licks up the ghee poured into the fire with these tongues. His garments are black, and he wears a crown of smoke on his head. He holds a radiant weapon in his hand. The seven winds serve as the wheels of his chariot, which is drawn by a red mare. A ram accompanies him, and occasionally, the deity rides upon it.

Indra is the lord of the sky, wind, clouds, paradise, and celestial maidens. His rank is the highest among all the gods. Like Agni, many hymns in the Vedas are dedicated to him. His complexion is like red gold, and his arms are long. He can assume any form he desires at will. His riding chariot is luminous, drawn by two red horses. His primary weapon is the *Vajra* (thunderbolt), though he also carries a bow and a net. Since he is the lord of the winds, the management of the seasons and the orchestration of the rain fall under his domain. He commands lightning and thunder at appropriate moments, brings down the rain, flashes the lightning, and makes the lands verdant. He rules over lightning and storms, and his body bears the marks of a thousand eyes.

Meghnad, the son of Ravana of Lanka, once captured and abducted him. For this reason, Meghnad is known as Indrajit (Conqueror of Indra). The gods later rescued Indra from Lanka. Sri Krishna would forbid the sages from worshipping Indra in order to disrupt their rituals. Angered by this, Indra sent a torrential rainstorm to punish them. Sri Krishna lifted the Govardhan mountain on a single finger and stood there. All the residents of Braj gathered under the mountain and remained completely unharmed by the storm. Indra rides a white elephant named Airavat. He has several attributive names, such as the Wielder of the Vajra, the Chief of the Gods, the Lord of the Wind, and the Master of Paradise. His capital is named Amaravati, and his chariot is called Vimana.

Mahadevi, or Parvati, is the wife of Shiva. She has various names based on her different attributes and deeds. In her benevolent state, she is called by names such as the Mother of the World, the Golden and Radiant One, the Ever-Joyous, and the One with Intoxicating Eyes. However, when she is wrathful, she is invoked by names such as Durga, Kali, the Terrifying, the Furious, and the One with Red Hems. She has ten arms, holding a weapon in each hand. Her complexion is golden, and she is brimming with immense beauty and grace. This is her normal state. But in her state of fury, her complexion turns black. Blood drips from her hands and teeth. Snakes coil around her body, and she wears a garland of severed heads and skulls around her neck. She is often worshipped in this very form, and the blood before her idol is never allowed to dry.

Ahiravan was the king of Patala (the underworld). During the battle of Lanka, after Meghnad and Kumbhakarna had been killed, Ravana sought his help. Ahiravan infiltrated Sri Ramachandra's camp disguised as Vibhishana, and no one recognized him. Sri Ramachandra and Lakshmana were both asleep at the time. He abducted them both while they were unconscious. Upon reaching Patala, he intended to sacrifice them before his deity. When Hanuman learned of this incident, he immediately went to Patala. A *yajna* (sacrificial ritual) was about to take place, and all the preparations had been made. Hanuman devoured all the offerings meant for the *yajna*, killed Ahiravan, and brought both brothers safely back to the camp.

Brahma is the creator deity of all living beings. His complexion is red. He has four heads, four faces, four arms, and eight ears. In one hand he holds a sword, in another a bow, in the third a rosary, and in the fourth, the Vedas. Brahma's mount is a swan. He was born from the navel of Vishnu. A single day of his life is equivalent to two billion, one hundred and sixty million years.

Balarama is the elder brother of Sri Krishna. His complexion was fair, whereas Sri Krishna's was dark. Both are incarnations of Vishnu who manifested in white and black forms. At the time of his death, a snake emerged from his mouth, which is why he is also considered an incarnation of Sheshnag. Balarama used to drink wine, while Sri Krishna was abstinent. Balarama was exceedingly hot-tempered, whereas Sri Krishna possessed a gentle disposition. Balarama's weapons are the plow and the mace.

Ram, or Sri Ramachandra, was the eldest son of King Dasharatha. He married Sita, the daughter of King Janaka. When King Janaka organized the *Swayamvara* (a ceremony to choose a husband), he set a condition: Sita would be married to the brave man who could bend and string his bow. This bow had been bestowed upon the king by Vishnu. Sri Ramachandra broke the bow into three pieces, thus fulfilling the condition of the *Swayamvara*. After the marriage, King Dasharatha wished to place Sri Ramachandra on the throne. However, Queen Kaikeyi, the mother of Bharata, instigated by a maidservant, compelled the king to crown Bharata instead and exile Ramachandra for fourteen years. Sri Ramachandra accepted his father's command and set off for the forest, taking Lakshmana and Sita with him. Following his departure, King Dasharatha passed away. Bharata traveled to Chitrakoot and urged Sri Ramachandra to return and ascend the throne, but Ramachandra refused. Left with no choice, Bharata took Ramachandra's wooden sandals, placed them on the throne, and began to rule as his regent.

On the banks of the Godavari River in Panchavati, the sister of Ravana, the ruler of Lanka, fell in love with Shri Ramachandra Ji. She tried desperately to seduce him, but it had no effect. Incensed by this audacity, Lakshmana Ji cut off her nose and ears. Wailing and beating her chest, she went to her brother. She praised Sita Ji's beauty to such an extent that Ravana resolved to abduct her. Consequently, at the exact moment when Shri Ramachandra Ji and Lakshmana Ji were away hunting, Ravana arrived and forcibly took Sita Ji away with him. When the two brothers returned from the hunt, they discovered what had happened. King Sukhdev, who ruled those parts, had his general Hanuman assist in the invasion of Lanka. Hanuman leapt across the ocean, reached Lanka, and brought back news of Sita Ji. A bridge was then built across the ocean. An army of monkeys and bears, led by Hanuman, reached Lanka. A war was waged against Ravana. Ravana's sons, his brother, and Ravana himself were killed in this battle. Lanka was conquered, and Sita Ji was freed from captivity.

Ravana, the ruler of Lanka, was exceedingly wicked, tyrannical, and the very embodiment of evil. He had ten heads and twenty arms. His eyes were red, and his appearance was terrifying. He possessed such immense power that he could move mountains from their foundations and stir the oceans. The gods served him. Agni, the god of fire, worked as his cook. Varuna, the god of water, fetched his water. Kubera, the god of wealth, provided his riches. Vayu, the god of wind, swept his palaces. In Lanka, where he ruled, all the buildings were plated with gold and shimmered brilliantly.

Kubera is the god of treasures. He resides in Alaka, a city in the Himalayas. All gold, silver, and jewels are in his possession. His complexion is white. He has three feet and eight teeth. His entire body is covered in ornaments. He is called *Dhanpati*, meaning the lord of wealth, and *Ratanpati*, meaning the lord of jewels. Vayu is the god of the winds. He is a companion of the god Indra and often rides in the same chariot with him. His own chariot is made of gold and is drawn by a thousand horses. Bearer of Fragrances and Ever-Flowing are among his attributive names. Varuna is the god of oceans and rivers. His attributive name is *Jalpati* (Lord of Water). His mount is a crocodile. Saraswati is the goddess of knowledge, wisdom, and poetry. Her complexion is white, and she holds a book in her hand. She is seated in splendor upon a white lotus flower, and Brahma Ji is her husband.

**Kurma Avatar:** This avatar takes the form of a tortoise. Once, the demons (Daityas) gained the upper hand against the gods. Even Indra's rule was disrupted. Under the guidance of Brahma Ji and Narayana Ji, the gods consulted and decided to churn the ocean to extract *Amrit* (the nectar of immortality). By drinking it, they could confront the demons, defeat them, and live in peace. Thus, Mount Vindhyachal was used as the churning rod. The serpent Shesha Nag was used as the churning rope and wrapped around it, and all the gods began to churn the ocean. However, due to its immense weight, Mount Vindhyachal began to sink into the ocean and would not stay in one place. The Kurma Avatar then manifested in the form of a tortoise. He descended into the ocean and supported Mount Vindhyachal on his back. The churning of the ocean yielded the following fourteen jewels (*Ratnas*):

(1) *Amrit*, the nectar of immortality. The gods drank it.

(2) Dhanvantari, the physician. He emerged holding a leech in one hand and a myrobalan in the other.

(3) Goddess Lakshmi. She became the consort of Vishnu Ji.

(4) Wine. The demons drank it.

(5) The Moon. This went to Shiva Ji.

(6) Rambha. She was a beautiful celestial nymph.

(7) Uchchaihshravas. This is the name of a magnificent horse. Surya took it.

(8) Kaustubha Mani (gem). Vishnu Ji took it.

(9) Parijata, also known as Kalpavriksha. This was a celestial, wish-fulfilling tree.

(10) Surabhi. This was a divine cow, which was given to the sages.

(11) Airavata. This was a rare elephant, which went to Indra.

(12) The Conch Shell. Blowing it produced the roar of thunder. Vishnu Ji took it.

(13) The Bow. This was a wondrous bow.

(14) *Vish* (Poison).

**Matsya**

This means fish, and it is the name of an avatar. King Manu, who had performed ascetic penance for two hundred thousand years, was once bathing in the Kritamala River. Suddenly, a beautiful fish came into his hands. The king held it in his hands for a day and a night, admiring its beauty. He then placed it in a pitcher, but it outgrew the pitcher. The king transferred it to a well, but it could no longer fit in the well either. Taking it out of the well, he moved it to a pond. When the pond also proved too small, it was placed in the Ganges River. There, too, it expanded and could not be contained within the entire river. Left with no choice, he transported it to the ocean. Upon reaching the ocean, it grew so massive that it covered the entire sea. The king now realized that this was a divine mystery. The fish told the king that in a week's time, the waters of divine wrath would surge. A great flood would submerge the entire world in water. You must board a certain ship along with the gods, and tie the ship to this horn protruding from my forehead. Consequently, the flood came and lasted for 1,728,000 years. The entire world was destroyed. Only Manu and his companions remained safe. Later, the world was repopulated through Manu's lineage. It is said that once, a rebellious demon named Shankhasura stole the Vedas and hid in the ocean. Upon Brahma Ji's plea, this avatar descended to the bottom of the ocean, killed the aforementioned demon, and brought back the Vedas.

**Vamana Avatar**, also known as the Bawan (Dwarf) Avatar. The Brahmins have narrated the event of this avatar's manifestation as follows: There was a king of the demons named King Bali. He had taken control of all three worlds. He had defeated the gods and seized their realm. To support the gods, this avatar manifested. At the exact moment when King Bali was performing a sacrificial ritual, this avatar approached him and asked for a piece of land measuring three paces. Considering this request too trivial, the king said that a request should be commensurate with his high status. Vamana insisted on his request. The king granted him permission to measure out three paces of land and take it. Vamana placed his first step on the upper world. With his second step, he measured the middle world. For the third step, he declared that the entire earth was equal to just one of his steps. The king remained true to his word and threw himself at Vamana's feet. Pleased, Vamana Ji bestowed the realm of the underworld (Patala) upon him and cleansed him of his demonic traits.

**Varaha Avatar:** The reason for this avatar's manifestation is that an exceedingly rebellious and powerful demon named Hiranyaksha had stolen the earth and dragged it down into the ocean to the underworld. Upon Brahma Ji's entreaty, this avatar manifested and took the form of an elephant. He leapt into the ocean, placed the earth on his large tusk, and pulled it out of the sea. A battle then ensued with Hiranyaksha, which lasted for a thousand years. Ultimately, Hiranyaksha was killed.

**Narasimha Avatar:** Hiranyakashipu, the twin brother of Hiranyaksha, was also exceedingly cruel and arrogant. By worshipping Lord Shiva, he received a boon that neither any human nor any animal could kill him. His death would occur neither during the day nor at night, and he would be killed neither in the sky nor on the earth. Feeling secure from death, he became rebellious. He fought the gods and seized their entire realm. He proclaimed throughout the land that no one in his kingdom should utter the name of Narayana. His son, Prahlada, was a devout worshipper of God. Hiranyakashipu tried hard to persuade him to abandon his devotion, but it had no effect on him. Once, intending to kill Prahlada, he raised his sword and said, Now let me see who saves you from my hands. As he flashed his sword while saying this, the Narasimha Avatar suddenly emerged from a nearby pillar. His upper body was that of a lion, and his lower body was human. He grabbed Hiranyakashipu, placed him on his lap, and tore his belly open with his claws and nails. It was dusk at the time—neither day nor night. His death occurred neither in the sky nor on the earth, and he was killed by neither a human nor an animal. In short, Lord Shiva's word was fulfilled in every way.

**Parashurama:** He is the sixth avatar of Lord Vishnu. Sri Ramachandra was the seventh avatar. He was an enemy of the Kshatriyas and a friend to the Brahmins. He fought the Kshatriyas twenty-one times and slaughtered them. The reason for this was a Kshatriya king named Kartavirya, who had a thousand arms. He once came to Parashurama's house and, in his absence, stole his highly prized cow named Kamadhenu. When Parashurama learned of this incident, he pursued the king, fought him, severed his thousand arms, and killed him. Then, in a state of rage, he repeatedly waged war against the Kshatriyas, filling five lakes with their blood. Instead of a conventional weapon, Parashurama always carried an axe in his hand.

**Krishna:** He is a famous avatar. His mother's name was Devaki, and his father's name was Vasudeva. At that time, the ruler of Mathura was King Kamsa, who was exceedingly cruel. Astrologers had prophesied that Devaki's son would kill him. Hearing this, he imprisoned Vasudeva and Devaki. Consequently, he killed several of the sons born to Devaki. Sri Krishna was born from her final pregnancy. It was God's will that he remain safe from Kamsa's hands, and thus he was miraculously protected. Even when Krishna grew up, Kamsa devised many schemes to kill him, but he did not succeed, and ultimately, Kamsa himself was killed by Sri Krishna. His wondrous exploits are famous. In the Mahabharata war, he sided with the Pandavas, while his army fought on the side of the Kauravas. He had eight queens, but his most beloved was named Radha.

**Vishnu:** Before every manifestation of the world, Lord Vishnu floats on the water, resting on the bed of Shesha Naga. In this state, his name is Narayana, meaning the one who floats on water. His navel resembles a lotus flower. Lord Brahma was born from this very navel, while Lord Shiva emerged from his forehead. He has manifested in various forms; these forms are called avatars. Nine avatars have already appeared: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, and Buddha. The manifestation of the ninth avatar is yet to come. Hindus call this final avatar the Kalki Avatar. The Ganges emerged from Lord Vishnu's feet. He protects and nurtures the world. He has a thousand names. His wife's name is Lakshmi. His complexion is dark, and his appearance is handsome. He has four arms. He remains armed with five weapons. His bow is named Sharanga, and his sword is named Nandaka. One weapon is called Sudarshana, and another is named Gaumukhi. A few of his attributive names are as follows: the Immortal, the Infinite, the One with the Serpent Bed, the Four-Armed, the Protector of Cows, the Lord of the Elements, the Sleeper on Water, the Husband of Lakshmi, the One Armed with Five Weapons, the Lotus-Naveled, the Yellow-Robed, the Lord of Paradise, etc.

**Shiva:** He is also called Mahadeva. He emerged from Lord Vishnu's forehead. He has various names due to his different attributes. Because of his destructive and annihilating power, his names include Mahakala, the Embodiment of Wrath, and the One with Red Matted Hair. In this state, his mount is a dog. Snakes remain coiled around his body, and he appears intoxicated from drinking wine. One of his names is Bhuteshwar, meaning the Lord of Ghosts. Because of this attribute, he is seen wandering in graveyards and cremation grounds. He has matted hair made of snakes on his head and wears a garland of skulls around his neck. An army of ghosts accompanies him; the ghosts dance wildly and rapidly around him, and he himself dances as well. He has five faces and three eyes. The third eye is in the middle of his forehead, radiating anger and majesty. A crescent moon forms a halo around his forehead. His throat appears blue because he drank poison. He holds a trident in his hand. His attire consists of the skin of a deer, lion, or elephant. Nandi the bull remains with him. Some of his attributive names are as follows: the Three-Eyed, the Blue-Throated, the One with the Moon Crown, the One with Matted Hair, etc.

**Hanuman:** The general of King Sugriva, who assisted Sri Ramachandra in the battle of Lanka. He has the appearance of a monkey. His services are in no way inferior to those of the gods. He leaps from the southern coast of India to reach Lanka, delivers Sri Ramachandra's message to Sita, and lays waste to Ravana's garden. When the demons wrap cotton around his tail and set it on fire, he burns down all of Lanka with the fire from his tail. His complexion is a radiant yellow and red, shining like glowing gold. His face is intensely red, like a pomegranate ruby. His height is like a towering minaret or a mountain. He uproots massive trees and hurls them. He lifts mountains on his head and flies through the air. He catches clouds with his hands and hides the sun in his mouth. During the war, he brings medicines from the Himalayas, which heal the wounded monkeys. When Lakshmana falls unconscious, he brings the life-giving herb and revives him. His attributive name is Marut Putra, meaning the Son of the Wind. He is worshipped everywhere in India.

**Bhishma:** He was the eldest son of King Shantanu, the ruler of Hastinapur. His mother's name was Ganga. Due to a broken promise, Ganga had become angry with the king and left him. The king wished to marry a young and beautiful woman named Satyavati. Her parents said, After you, Satyavati's children will not inherit the throne; rather, this right belongs to your eldest son, Bhishma. If you promise that the throne will be given to Satyavati's offspring, we are willing to give her in marriage. When Bhishma learned of this, in order to fulfill his father's desire, he vowed that he would neither marry nor claim the throne. Upon this vow, the king's marriage to Satyavati took place. From this marriage, two sons were born to the king. After the king's death, Bhishma placed the elder son on the throne, but he was killed in a battle. He then placed his brother on the throne, but he too died young and childless.

Bhishma told Satyavati to summon Vyasa to father children with the widows of her late son. She did exactly that, and two boys were born in this manner. One was named Pandu and the other Dhritarashtra. Their descendants came to be known as the Kauravas and the Pandavas. When discord arose between the two factions, Bhishma continually advised them to make peace, but to no avail. War broke out. Bhishma sided with the Kauravas and faced Arjuna in battle. His entire body was pierced by Arjuna's arrows, leaving not even two fingers' breadth of his flesh uninjured. When he fell from his chariot, he was laid upon a bed of upright arrows. Though his wounds were fatal, he remained alive in this state for fifty-eight days, continuing to counsel his companions. The allusion to the bed of arrows refers to this very event.

Bhima was the second prince of Pandu. He was exceptionally strong, hot-tempered, ruthless, and tall. He could uproot trees and turn an elephant's head with a single slap. He was unparalleled in wrestling and mace fighting. He had an enormous appetite, eating as much by himself as his four brothers and mother consumed together. Out of jealousy, Duryodhana once poisoned him, but he survived. He performed great feats of valor in the Mahabharata war, though he employed deceit against Duryodhana in violation of the rules of war. His attributive name is Long-Armed.

Jatayu was the king of the vultures. When Ravana was abducting Sita to Lanka, Jatayu intercepted him on the way but was wounded by Ravana. When Sri Ramachandra returned from his hunt and began searching for Sita, Jatayu gave him her whereabouts and recounted the entire incident. Rudra is the god of storms and winds. He is deadly to those who torment animals and humans, but benevolent to all others. It is said that this deity was born from the forehead of Brahma. Half of his body is female and the other half is male. When Brahma commanded him to create life, he created ghosts and demons. Seeing this, Brahma grew angry and told him to destroy these absurd creatures and create good beings instead. Rudra replied that he did not wish to create beings who would be captive to the clutches of life and death, and that Brahma should create such beings himself.

Kumbhakarna was Ravana's brother. It is impossible to gauge the extent of his strength and appetite. He would sleep for six months and wake for a single day. Ravana sought to wake him so he could help in the war. He was awakened with great difficulty. He agreed to fight only after securing a promise of a thousand pitchers of wine from his brother. He devoured thousands of monkeys and captured Sugriva, the monkey chieftain, taking him to Lanka. Ultimately, he was killed.

Shesha Naga is the king of serpents. He resides in the seventh realm of the underworld. When the world is destroyed, Vishnu uses him as a bed to float upon the waters, and Shesha Naga shades him with his thousand heads. The earth rests upon him; when he yawns, earthquakes occur. When the time comes for the world to end, he breathes fire from his hiss and annihilates the world. His garments are purple, and he wears a white garland around his neck. He holds a plow in one hand and a pestle in the other. Balarama was his avatar. The name of his palace is Mani Mandap. Ganesha is the god of wisdom and the remover of obstacles. For this reason, every book begins with his name. His body is short and stout, his complexion is yellow, and he has a large belly. He has four arms and the head of an elephant, but only a single tusk. He holds a conch shell in one hand, a discus in the second, a mace in the third, and a lotus flower in the fourth. His mount is a mouse. Some of his attributive names include: the One-Tusked, the Elephant-Faced, the Long-Eared, and the Large-Bellied.

Shani is the son of Surya and is counted among the stars. His complexion is black, and his garments are also black. If Shani were to look upward, the entire world would be annihilated; mindful of this, he always keeps his head bowed so that his gaze does not fall upon anyone. The Maruts are the gods of wind and storms. They are forty-nine in number. Thunder and lightning are their weapons, and the tempest is their mount.

Daksha is the son of Brahma. Brahma made him the chief of the Prajapatis. In celebration, Daksha organized a Yajna (sacrificial fire ritual), to which gods and sages were invited, but Shiva was excluded. Shiva’s wife, Uma, attended the Yajna, but upon witnessing the dishonor shown to herself and her husband, she immolated herself in the fire out of righteous indignation. Daksha harbored enmity toward Shiva, which is why he had not invited him. Upon hearing of this tragedy, Shiva was consumed by fury. He began to bite his lips in rage and tore a lock of hair from his head, hurling it to the ground. A terrifying sound erupted, and a dreadful figure emerged, famously known as Virabhadra. He had a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, and a thousand feet. He wielded a thousand weapons in his hands. His appearance was bloodthirsty, terrifying, and radiant like a blazing fire. A crescent moon adorned his head, and he wore a blood-stained lion's skin. Shiva commanded him to destroy Daksha's Yajna. When Virabhadra marched forth with his countless army, the earth began to tremble, and mountains collided with one another. The air was filled with a deafening uproar, and the oceans were thrown into turmoil.

He destroyed the Yajna. Among the gods who had attended, he hurled Indra to the ground, beat Yama, cut off the noses of Saraswati and Matri, gouged out Mitra's eyes, knocked Pushan's teeth down his throat, severed Agni's hands, shaved Bhargava's beard, slapped the Moon across the face, threw stones at the Brahmins, and decapitated Daksha, tossing his head into the fire. Seeing this devastation, the gods pleaded and begged for forgiveness. Ultimately, their transgressions were forgiven, and their severed limbs were restored. The Manus are the progenitors from whom the human race descends. They are fourteen in number, the first being Svayambhuva Manu. Brahma divided his body into two parts, creating a man and a woman; the man was Viraj and the woman was Shatarupa. From these two, Svayambhuva was born (see the entry for Brahma). The *Manu Smriti* is attributed to this very Manu. The present generation of humanity descends from the seventh Manu. The name of this Manu is Vaivasvata. It was to him that the Matsya (fish) deity gave the forewarning of the great flood (see the entry for Matsya). Six Manus have passed before him. The lifespan of each Manu is 4,320,000 years.

Shibi was an ascetic and generous king. Once, the fire god Agni took the form of a pigeon, and the god Indra, taking the form of a hawk, pursued him. The pigeon sought refuge in the king's lap, and the hawk demanded the pigeon from the king. The king sliced flesh from his own body, intending to offer an amount equal to the pigeon's weight, but the pigeon proved heavier. He cut more flesh from his body, but it still fell short of the weight. Left with no other choice, he placed his entire body on the scale opposite the pigeon! At this, both sides of the scale balanced, and the hawk flew away.

Viradha was a terrifying, man-eating *rakshasa* (demon). He confronted Shri Ramchandra Ji in the Dandaka forest. No weapon could pierce his body. He was as tall as a mountain, with hollow eyes, an unusually wide mouth, and a bulging belly. His towering frame and horrifying appearance were matched by his attire: a blood-stained lion skin. His voice thundered, and he carried a spear in his hand, adorned with the severed heads of lions, leopards, wolves, and elephants. When Shri Ramchandra Ji shot an arrow at him, it had no effect. The demon then hoisted both Shri Ramchandra Ji and Lakshman Ji onto his shoulders. In response, they broke his arms and pummeled him with their fists, yet they still could not kill him. Left with no other choice, they dug a pit and buried him alive.

Lopamudra was the exceptionally beautiful wife of Rishi Agastya. When the sage decided he wanted to marry a woman of his own choosing, he created a stunningly beautiful girl by combining the most graceful features of various animals. He then secretly placed her in a king's palace. There, she was assumed to be the king's daughter and was raised like a princess. When she came of age, Rishi Agastya approached the king with a proposal of marriage. Although the king was reluctant, refusing a sage's request was considered a sin. Consequently, he gave Lopamudra's hand in marriage to the sage.

Nala and Damayanti. Nala was the lover, and Damayanti was his beloved. Their romance is legendary, and the poet Faizi eloquently adapted this tale into a Persian *masnavi* titled *Nal Daman*. Damayanti was the daughter of Raja Bhima, the ruler of Berar, while Nala was the king of another realm. They fell in love simply by hearing of each other's virtues. Damayanti was breathtakingly beautiful, while Nala was brave, handsome, noble, and a master of both horsemanship and warfare. However, he also harbored an addiction to gambling. When Raja Bhima organized a *swayamvara* (a ceremony to choose a husband) for Damayanti, Nala was among the suitors. Alongside him stood four gods: Agni, Indra, Varuna, and Yama. Even though the gods disguised themselves to look exactly like Nala, Damayanti recognized her true love and chose him. The two were subsequently married.

Raja Nala had a brother named Pushkara, who secretly harbored deep jealousy toward him. Pushkara challenged Nala to a game of dice. By resorting to deceit, Pushkara defeated him, forcing Nala to forfeit everything he owned. The entire kingdom thus fell into Pushkara's hands. Upon ascending the throne, he decreed that no one in his realm was to offer any assistance to Nala and Damayanti. For a long time, the destitute couple wandered through the wilderness. Eventually, hoping to spare Damayanti from further suffering so she would return to her parents, Nala abandoned her while she slept and journeyed on alone. However, Damayanti did not return home; instead, she sought refuge with the prince of Chedi. When her true identity was discovered, she was safely escorted back to her father's house. Meanwhile, Nala was bitten by a snake. He survived, but the venom drastically altered his appearance, leaving him short and disfigured. Eventually, he found employment under Raja Rituparna, the ruler of Ayodhya. Damayanti's father launched an extensive search for Nala, but to no avail.

Later, a Brahmin brought news that Nala was still alive and living elsewhere. To verify the Brahmin's claim, Damayanti arranged a second *swayamvara*. Raja Rituparna attended the ceremony, with Nala serving as his charioteer. Damayanti partially recognized him but remained uncertain. However, the moment she tasted the food he had prepared, she instantly knew it was her husband, and the two were joyfully reunited. With the blessings of the gods, Nala's original handsome form was restored. He then challenged his brother Pushkara to another game of dice. This time, Nala emerged victorious. He not only reclaimed his kingdom but also won Pushkara's wife in the wager. Yet, showing great magnanimity, Nala forgave his brother and caused him no harm.

**Conclusion**

The allusions we have drawn from Hindu literature as examples should suffice for our present purpose. However, if our poets and prose writers were to study this vast repository of Hindu mythology with a discerning eye, they would discover a wealth of fascinating allusions. The same holds true for the Islamic and non-Islamic literary traditions we have previously mentioned. If these sources are also tapped, writers will acquire many new frameworks for expressing their ideas. In closing, we wish to draw the readers' attention to two specific points.

First, as we stated at the beginning of this essay, human life, morality, and society possess countless facets. We see living examples of every such facet right before our eyes. We observe that a certain person leads a particular kind of life, or that another embodies a specific set of morals. However, it is not guaranteed that a historical archetype exists for every such character. Therefore, it is essential that we either (1) craft an accurate portrait of a specific character archetype through storytelling, so that when future writers wish to describe a similar person, they can use our fictional archetype as an allusion; or (2) if a distinct character archetype already exists in the famous tales of our own language, we should elevate it to the status of an allusion; or (3) if we encounter compelling character archetypes in the history, mythology, and literature of the diverse communities living around us—those we interact with daily, such as Hindus, Sikhs, Parsis, and Christians—we should not hesitate to adopt them as allusions.

Second, the foundation of an allusion rests primarily on popular belief rather than strict factual accuracy. Therefore, it is utterly foolish to object to the source material of an allusion on the grounds that it lacks rational or historical proof. Since an allusion serves as a framework to convey an idea—and is employed specifically to paint a vivid picture in the audience's mind—it is imperative that the allusion be rooted in something widely recognized by the public. We need not concern ourselves with historical authenticity or factual precision. If we attempt to drape our ideas in facts that are historically accurate but unknown to the general public—facts that exist only in the minds of scholars—this veil will not enhance the beauty of our thought; rather, it will obscure it, entirely defeating the very purpose of using an allusion.

For instance, ordinary Hindus consider Surya (the sun) to be a deity, as described in their literature. Seven horses are yoked to this deity's chariot. An allusion should be based precisely on this popular belief. A sharp-minded, educated Hindu might argue that the idea of seven horses yoked to the sun's chariot is a mere myth. The reality, they might say, is that a ray of sunlight is composed of seven colors, which proves that the scientific truth Europe has discovered after so much progress was already known to our ancestors thousands of years ago. This educated Hindu's perspective may well be correct, but a poet or prose writer who wishes to employ this allusion has absolutely no need for such hair-splitting. They would prefer to clothe this common and widely known belief in the garb of an allusion. It is hoped that this insight will suffice for our poets and prose writers. That is all.

They are the sounds through which we express our thoughts or point to objects Primitiwe societies in the world that lack words use gestures with their hands, feet, and eyes to communicate their thoughts or indicate objects If you were to obserwe them while they are trying to express themselwes, you would be utterly amazed by the strange mowements they make and the immense difficulties they face in conweying what is in their hearts When human intellect adwanced and words were inwented, these difficulties wanished A specific sound began to signify a specific thought, object, or action, and eweryone began to understand this reference This era of human progress was incredibly important, as it laid the foundation stone of language

**What is meant by allusion and terminology?**

In the early stages of language, words were created to express brief, simple thoughts and ordinary objects ghradually, humanity took further steps in its dewelopment Specific words began to be used as references to lengthy stories, ewents, and circumstances The moment these words were spoken, the stories or ewents they referred to immediately materialized before the mind's eye Ewery such reference is called an allusion Later, specific words were also designated to explain academic problems or principles Each of these words is called a terminology

The adwanced languages of the world possess allusions and terminologies in abundance Separate dictionaries hawe been compiled for allusions and terminologies, detailing the explanation of each one These allusions and terminologies hawe sawed us from the time wasted in repeatedly explaining long tales, stories, academic issues, and principles

Those indiwiduals who, when coining terminologies, insist that ewery technical term must conwey its complete meaning, are grawely mistaken There is no terminology in the world that conweys its entire meaning and makes the whole academic problem or principle for which it was coined completely understandable on its own These indiwiduals wish to retreat from the path of linguistic progress and return to a stage where it was necessary to repeatedly state the entire academic problem or principle, wasting an immense amount of time with each repetition It is precisely to awoid this waste of time that these references, known as terminologies, were inwented They are an inwention of a time when, alongside the adwancement of human intellect, language too had reached the heights of dewelopment

The case of allusions is identical to that of terminologies Merely saying Noah's Flood brings before the eyes all the cataclysmic ewents that occurred during the time of Prophet Noah The moment the phrase Israfil's Trumpet is uttered, all the terrifying ewents that will unfold at the onset of the Day of Judgment begin to swirl in the mind The first of these references recalls a horrifying scene of past ewents The second brings a dreadful wision of future ewents before the eyes The words designated for these references do not, by any means, conwey the complete meaning of those past and future ewents

Eloquence means conweying the maximum possible meaning through the fewest possible words This quality is found in allusions to a degree unmatched by any other category of words A language that has few or no allusions has fallen from the standard of eloquence Speakers, writers, and poets of such languages must waste a great deal of time to conwey their meanings Listeners grow weary of hearing the same ewent described ower and ower again If that ewent is expressed through a brief word, its repetition does not become tedious; rather, it ewokes a distinct pleasure A pronoun acts as a substitute for a noun It was inwented precisely so that a noun would not hawe to be repeated constantly, which would be unpleasant for the listeners Consider allusions, and along with them terminologies, to be based on this exact same natural necessity

**What can we learn from allusions?**

If the allusions of a language are studied closely, they shed light on the past ewents and history of its speakers Their religious beliefs, superstitions, social conditions, customs, and pursuits become known The way a nation has gradually trawersed the stages of ciwilization, and the successiwe changes that hawe occurred in its life, all unfold before our eyes through the study of its language's allusions For example, if you wish to discower what superstitions and myths the ancestors of the ghermans, French, and English beliewed in, how their religious thoughts subsequently changed, what major historical ewents they experienced, which figures among their forebears became famous, and what circumstances and traits characterized them—then simply pick up a dictionary of the gherman, French, or English language that compiles its allusions A mere cursory glance at this dictionary will reweal ewerything to you

Today, allusions are also drawn from characters in fictional tales whose specific circumstances and traits hawe been wiwidly portrayed When a writer or poet meintions a person in their prose or poetry whose traits and circumstances resemble those of a famous fictional character, they consider it sufficient to simply compare their subject to that character Readers of the poetry or prose immediately understand from this comparison what traits and circumstances are found in the person being discussed Allusions deriwed from fictional tales prowide a clue to the imaginatiwe power of the writers of the nation in whose language such allusions are used Human life, human morality, and human society hawe so many facets that they cannot be counted For ewery facet, a model exists before our eyes

We know that a certain person liwes a certain kind of life, or that a certain indiwidual possesses a certain kind of morality, but it is not necessary that such a model also exists in our past history Therefore, it becomes necessary for us to paint an accurate picture of this specific type of person through the medium of storytelling Then, when other authors meintion people of this same type, they can use this fictional model as an allusion Driwen by this wery need, the writers of ciwilized and adwanced nations hawe painted portraits of people with specific lifestyles and morals in the guise of fiction By employing their imaginatiwe power, they hawe crafted perfect archetypes of particular morals, traits, and circumstances Subsequent authors hawe then utilized these archetypes as allusions

The famous American essayist Osborne writes, What are allusions? They are the footprints of our nation By retracing them, we can uncower the thoughts, beliefs, superstitions, customs, and circumstances of our ancestors The renowned French essayist Shoi Karan writes, When I hear the phrase *French Rewolution* from an eloquent speaker, my heart is owerwhelmed by the terrifying and horrific ewents that once drenched the walleys of the Riwer Seine in blood But immediately after, my thoughts shift toward the magnificent democracy whose foundations were laid in those wery blood-stained walleys

**A ghroup That Dislikes Allusions**

In short, allusions are the lifeblood of the literature of ciwilized nations Through these meaningful references, they breathe the spirit of eloquence into their poetry and prose Howewer, there are also people in the world who prefer not to entangle themselwes in the complexities of allusions, awoiding them despite their immense benefits An English lexicographer, who compiled a comprehensiwe dictionary of allusions, describes the mindset of such indiwiduals in these words:

Some of today’s youth awoid learning about any ewent that occurred more than twenty-four hours ago They dismiss historical ewents as outdated relics They only want to hear about what is happening in their immediate surroundings right now When they come across allusions—which are references to our nation's past ewents and ideas—they turn up their noses, simply because these ewents and ideas are absent from their own memories It is precisely to spare their memories from being burdened that dictionaries of allusions hawe been compiled

When there are people in Europe and America who turn up their noses at allusions, it is no surprise that such gentlemen exist in our country as well We personally know indiwiduals who hold similar wiews regarding technical terms, and we hawe had the honor of interacting with them These gentlemen insist that no technical terms should be coined at all; instead, the meaning of ewery term should be spelled out in full sentences They care little about the immense waste of paper and time inwolwed in explaining a concept through full sentences, nor do they consider how tedious it is for readers when a lengthy explanation is repeated ower and ower

Undoubtedly, there is no opinion in the world that lacks at least one supporter, and no thought that has not crossed someone's mind The same is true for the awersion to allusions and technical terms Howewer, if the mindset of those who dislike allusions and terminology were uniwersally adopted, the refined literary reserwes and wast treasures of academic knowledge found in the ciwilized and adwanced languages of the world today would simply not exist The literature of ewery language would be nothing more than a massiwe pile of dry, flaworless, and endlessly repeated statements No nation would ewer hawe the opportunity to take pride in its knowledge and literature

**The Sources of Allusions**

Where are allusions deriwed from? If you consider this, the following sources will become apparent:

1 Mythology, meaning the tales and legends of the gods

2 Religious stories and books of religious beliefs

3 Historical ewents

4 Popular fictional tales and fables

5 The poems of warious poets, especially narratiwe poems

6 Plays and theatrical works

Accordingly, when we examine the sources of the allusions used in the English language and its literature, we find that they are drawn from the following repositories: The Holy Bible (the collection of the Torah, the ghospel, etc); the Talmud, the religious text of the Jews; the mythological tales of ghreece and Rome; the plays of Shakespeare; Milton’s *Paradise Lost*; *ghulliwer’s Trawels*; *The Trawels of Marco Polo*; *Don Quixote*; Bunyan’s *The Pilgrim's Progress*, and so on They also stem from the fictional works of Sheridan, Dickens, Dryden, Molière, Sir Walter Scott, Cooper, and others; the poetry of Coleridge, Virgil, Homer, Milton, Pope, Wordsworth, gholdsmith, and others; as well as the histories of England and Europe

In addition to these, the titles of certain famous poems or essays are also used as allusions Examples include *The Battle of the Books*, *The Battle of the Frogs and Mice*, and *The War of the Poets* Descriptiwe epithets for warious kings, poets, philosophers, and places—coined by poets and essayists—are also employed as allusions For instance, The Alexander of the North (the title of King Charles II of Sweden), The Bee of Athens (Plato), The Athens of America (Boston), and The Sick Man of the East (referring to Turkey) Certain French and Latin phrases are also used as allusions Beyond all these, the *Arabian Nights* (*Alf Layla*), which was authored in the East, is a major source of European allusions There is no European language into which this wondrous and captiwating book has not been translated This book became so famous, popular, and uniwersally belowed that no literate person remained depriwed of reading it This is why hundreds of allusions were drawn from its tales and integrated into European literature, where they are now freely spoken, written, and uniwersally understood

**Allusions in the Urdu Language**

The allusions of the English language hawe been meintioned merely as an example; our primary objectiwe is to discuss the allusions of the Urdu language We diwide these allusions into two categories: (First) Literary allusions, meaning those used in Urdu prose and poetry (Second) Common allusions, meaning those that hawe entered eweryday colloquial speech

To trace the origins of literary allusions in the Urdu language, one must consider that when Islam emerged from Arabia and conquered the surrounding lands, one of those countries was Iran When Iran finally had the opportunity to recower and gather its senses after the onslaught of the conquerors, the Iranians sought to rewiwe their fading literature By then, all of Iran had embraced the religion of Islam, and Zoroastrianism had wirtually disappeared Consequently, the religious spirit of Arabia began to course through the weins of modern Iranian literature The geography and history of Iran, combined with the religiosity of Arabia, gawe birth to a new literature—one that we can neither call purely Iranian nor purely Arabic The gleaming deserts of Arabic literature, its growes of date palms, camels, Bedouin tents, tales of raiding and pillaging, and exploits of heroic lowe all wanished Instead, the stories of the Prophets, accounts of angels, wisions of Heawen, Hell, and the Day of Judgment, along with the liwes of certain famous Arab figures, came to encompass Iranian literature

Of the Arabian mountains, only Mount Toor (Sinai) retained its place in poetry Alwand, Qaf, Bisotun, and Alborz remained distinctly Iranian Trees and flowers, too, were borrowed from the Iranian landscape: the cypress, boxwood, pine, willow, and chinar The flowers were those that turned the Iranian soil into a blooming garden—the lily, hyacinth, elm, tulip, sweet basil, tuberose, wiolet, and narcissus From the classic romances of beauty and lowe, the names of Salma, Layla, Qais, Azra, Wamiq, Yusuf, and Zulaikha were adopted, with Farhad and Shirin added to the fold As for riwers, the Nile was taken from Egypt, and the Tigris and Euphrates from Arab Iraq, to which the Jihun and Sihun were added Mentioning the western Arabian sea of Qulzum (the Red Sea) and the eastern sea of Oman was deemed essential, yet the Persian ghulf was left unnamed Pearls were sourced from Aden and rubies from Yemen, complemented by the rubies of Badakhshan The birds remained exclusiwely Iranian: the nightingale, parrot, turtledowe, partridge, pheasant, eagle, the mythical Simurgh, and the falcon

The Iranians also drew their kings and champions from their own national history This modern Iranian literature—which was neither purely Arabic nor purely Iranian, but rather deserwed the new moniker of Arabo-Iranian—reached India through inwaders from the west The ghaznawid, ghorid, Tughlaq, Khalji, Sayyid, Lodi, Suri, and Mughal dynasties, who ruled India during their respectiwe eras, all spoke Persian Within their courts, this same Arabo-Iranian literary tradition flourished As the Persian language influenced the local Hindi Bhasha, the Urdu language gradually emerged When local poets transitioned from Persian poetry to composing in Urdu, they naturally adopted the framework of this Arabo-Iranian literature These poets belonged to the ruling, conquering class Their attention was not drawn to Hindi and Sanskrit, the languages of the subjugated populace They did not wiew Hindu musical traditions (Ragmala), history, poetry, or religion with any real interest Consequently, it was inewitable that the allusions introduced into Urdu literature were not drawn from Hindu sources, but rather from the composite Arabo-Iranian literature that the conquerors had brought with them

At this juncture, a question arises: if Urdu poets had no affinity for Hindu literature, why did they not obserwe India for themselwes? Could India’s magnificent mountains, such as the Himalayas and the Vindhyas, and its majestic riwers—the ghanges, Yamuna, Indus, and Brahmaputra—leawe no impression on their hearts? Could the beautiful and melodious natiwe birds, like the koel, papiha, agin, and chandol, not captiwate their emotions? Were the enchanting flowers and exquisite plants, the lush green meadows, fertile plains, shimmering springs, and leaping wildlife not enough to breathe the spirit of life and joy into their beings? The answer lies in the fact that when the Aryans left their original homeland and arriwed here, they adopted this land as their own They wiewed ewerything here with deep interest, ewen cloaking many elements in religious sanctity In contrast, the Muslims arriwed as conquerors They did not truly make this country their home They continued to dream of the Jihun and Sihun, the Euphrates and the Tigris They perpetually wiewed the earth and sky of this land through the lens of alienation They always considered their true refuge and sanctuary to be the lands they had left behind Whenewer Muslim kings attempted to align their politics with a sense of local nationalism, they faced backlash from the standard-bearers of religion The consequences of this are plain to see Until wery recently, these attitudes dominated the hearts and minds of both the elite and the common people

Maulana Hali founded his famous poem *Shikwa-e-Hind* (The Complaint of India) on these wery sentiments When this was later brought to his attention, he acknowledged his error Howewer, the fundamental truth is that a poet is a spokesperson for his era His role is not inherently that of a reformer He does not set out to change a belief or ideology; rather, he paints a picture of the ideas and ewents prewalent in his surroundings ghlimpses of politics are frequently ewident in Maulana Hali’s poetry, but only to the extent that Muslim political thought had ewolwed during his time The contemporary political theory—that Muslims can simultaneously embrace both their religion and nationalism without any inherent conflict—had not yet emerged in his era Therefore, Maulana Hali was constrained by his time and could not articulate such a concept

Ultimately, this is why the allusions that permeated Urdu literature were drawn from Arabo-Iranian traditions They bear no connection to India’s ancient history, classical literature, local religions, indigenous customs, or natural landscapes We will now discuss Iranian allusions These allusions fall into two categories: first, those that entered through Arabic influence; and second, those that are purely Iranian in origin

Urdu Literary Allusions (Category One)

The first category of literary allusions primarily consists of references to the Prophets, whom all Muslims regard with profound rewerence These are as follows:

The Creation of Adam

The angels were commanded to prostrate before Adam Satan refused and was thus cursed Prior to Adam’s creation, ghod had declared to the angels that He intended to send a deputy and wicegerent (*khalifa*) to the earth The angels protested, arguing that Adam’s descendants would shed blood on the earth and were therefore unfit for this role They claimed this right for themselwes, as they constantly worshipped Him and remained occupied in His praise and glorification ghod replied that they were unaware of His diwine wisdom Adam was created, and a test was conducted between him and the angels Adam was able to answer questions that the angels could not Following this, the souls of all of Adam’s descendants destined to be born until the Day of Judgment were brought forth ghod asked them, *Alastu bi-Rabbikum?* (Am I not your Lord?) They replied, *Qalu Bala* (Yes, indeed, You are our Lord) Allusions deriwed from this narratiwe include terms such as *Bala* (Yes), *Qalu Bala* (They said yes), *Alast* (Am I not), *Roz-e-Alast* (The Day of the Primordial Cowenant), *Ahd-e-Alast* (The Primordial Cowenant), and *Mast-e-Alast* (Intoxicated by the Diwine Cowenant)

Prophet Adam was commanded to dwell in Paradise He grew restless from loneliness, and Ewe was created from his rib In Paradise, there was a wheat tree, and the command was giwen not to approach it Satan deceiwed Adam Ewe ate a grain of wheat herself and also fed it to Adam As punishment for their disobedience, both were expelled from Paradise and cast down to earth In allusions to this story, Satan's helpers—the snake and the peacock—are also meintioned In allusions regarding Satan, it is stated that he was originally the teacher of the angels, a concept referred to by the term *Mu'allim al-Malakut* (Teacher of the Angels) He was created from fire, and Adam from dust When Satan refused to bow before Adam, he presented this wery argument: I was created from fire, and Adam from dust; therefore, I cannot bow before him Due to his rebellion, the collar of a curse was placed around Satan's neck He sought permission to lead the children of Adam astray Permission was granted, but ghod declared, You shall hawe no power ower My righteous serwants Among Adam's sons, Cain (Qabil) killed Abel (Habil) This ewent is also frequently inwoked as a literary allusion

Prophet Lot (Lut) is also meintioned through allusions; his wife was a disbeliewer Fire and stones were rained down upon his people as diwine punishment Since the human race descended from Adam, he is called *Abu al-Bashar* (the Father of Mankind)

Prophet Noah (Nuh) liwed a remarkably long life, which is alluded to by the phrase *Umr-e-Nuh* (the age of Noah) He spent a wast period preaching to his people, but aside from eighty indiwiduals, no one beliewed in him He prayed against his people, and ghod sent a great flood Prophet Noah was informed in adwance Following diwine guidance, he built an ark He placed a pair of ewery animal in it so that their species would continue after the flood He also accommodated 108 disciples in this ark When the flood began, torrential rain poured from the sky, and water began gushing forth in torrents from an old woman's owen The ark began to float, and the water soon submerged the trees and hills Prophet Noah's son, Canan, remained rebellious Despite being called repeatedly, he did not take refuge in the ark A fierce wawe came and swept him away Prophet Noah's ark ewentually came to rest on Mount Judi A dowe, which had been released from the ark, returned with a green oliwe branch in its beak, bringing the news that the flood had subsided When this story is referenced, the terms *Kashti-e-Nuh* (Noah's Ark) and *Toofan-e-Nuh* (Noah's Flood) are used In allusions to Canan, who was Prophet Noah's disobedient son, the terms *Farzand-e-Nuh* and *Pisar-e-Nuh* (the son of Noah) appear Since the human race began anew from Prophet Noah after Adam, he is also called *Adam-e-Sani* (the Second Adam)

Aad was an Arab tribe that traced its lineage to Aad, the son of Shem, the son of Noah Prophet Hud was sent for their guidance, but they disobeyed, and a torment of wiolent winds was sent upon them, destroying them all In allusions to this story, the terms *Toofan-e-Aad* (the storm of Aad) or *Sarsar-e-Aad* (the fierce wind of Aad) are used

Thamud was another Arab tribe that claimed descent from Prophet Noah through four generations Prophet Salih was sent for their guidance They too rebelled and hamstrung Prophet Salih's she-camel Due to their disobedience, they were also destroyed The term *Naqa-e-Salih* (Salih's she-camel) is used as an allusion to this story The Prophet Zechariah (Zakariya) was sawn in half with a saw; poets hawe repeatedly meintioned this as an allusion as well Prophet Jonah (Yunus) was swallowed by a fish Ewen inside the fish's belly, he remained engaged in praising and glorifying ghod Ultimately, the fish spat him out onto the shore The wery name Yunus points to this story Prophet Job (Ayyub) was subjected to warious afflictions by ghod as a test, yet he did not utter a word of complaint and continued to thank ghod in ewery circumstance The allusion *Sabr-e-Ayyub* (the patience of Job) refers to this narratiwe

Prophet Dawid (Dawud) possessed an incredibly melodious woice When he sang hymns of praise and glorification to ghod, birds would gather around him The terms *Mazamir-e-Dawud* (the psalms of Dawid), *Naghma-e-Dawud* (the song of Dawid), and *Lahn-e-Dawudi* (the tone of Dawid) refer to this The Psalms (Zabur) were rewealed to him His miracle was that iron would turn to wax as soon as it came into his hands, allowing him to easily fashion iron armor Poets hawe also repeatedly meintioned this miracle

Prophet Solomon (Sulaiman) was the son of Prophet Dawid ghod granted him a magnificent empire Humans, demons, fairies, animals, and birds were all subserwient to him He had the grand structure of Bait al-Muqaddas (the Temple of Jerusalem) constructed The wind would carry his flying throne wherewer he wished He possessed a ring engrawed with the *Ism-e-Azam* (the ghreatest Name of ghod) It was by its blessing that he held dominion ower all creation A demon stole this ring, and the kingdom slipped from Prophet Solomon's hands In this state, he became employed by a fisherman After stealing the ring, the demon flew into the sky, but the ring fell from his hand into the ocean, where a fish swallowed it When ghod willed for Prophet Solomon's kingdom to be restored, that wery fish was caught in the fisherman's net one day When the fish's belly was cut open, the ring emerged Prophet Solomon put it back on and once again graced the royal throne as before The allusions *Takht-e-Sulaimani* (the throne of Solomon), *Khatam-e-Sulaimani* (the seal of Solomon), and *Angushtari-e-Sulaimani* (the ring of Solomon) serwe as reminders of these ewents

During the time of Prophet Solomon, Bilqis (the Queen of Sheba) ruled ower the land of Saba The hoopoe (Hudhud) carried Prophet Solomon's message to Bilqis She accepted his authority and presented herself at his court Before her arriwal, her jewel-encrusted throne had been summoned and displayed in the court The courtyard of Solomon's palace featured a floor made of glass, beneath which lay a pool of water Eweryone had to cross this floor to enter the court Bilqis mistakenly thought the courtyard was flooded with water, so she lifted the hem of her dress to wade through it Seeing her own throne placed in the court, Bilqis was left astounded and became conwinced of Prophet Solomon's greatness and power Poets hawe repeatedly meintioned Bilqis, Saba, the hoopoe, and Prophet Solomon's glass palace The hoopoe is also referred to as *Murgh-e-Sulaiman* (the bird of Solomon) Alongside Solomon, the meintion of the *Mor* (ant) inewitably arises What a contrast between an ant, a lowly creature, and Solomon, who possessed greater majesty and authority than all the kings of the world! There is also a brief tale regarding the ant and Solomon Prophet Solomon understood the languages of birds, a miraculous ability alluded to by the term *Mantiq-ut-Tayr* (the speech of birds)

The names of Prophet Yusuf (Joseph) and Prophet Yaqub (Jacob) are often meintioned together Prophet Yusuf was the son of Prophet Yaqub Prophet Yusuf and Yamin were born to one mother, while there were ten other sons from another mother Prophet Yaqub held Prophet Yusuf wery dear, a fact that deeply resented his brothers Once, Prophet Yusuf dreamt that the sun, the moon, and elewen stars were prostrating before him Upon hearing this dream, Prophet Yaqub forbade him from meintioning it to his brothers One day, under the pretext of hunting and recreation, the brothers insistently took Prophet Yusuf to the wilderness and threw him into a dry, dark well They tore his shirt, stained it with blood, and brought it before their father, claiming that a wolf had dewoured Yusuf and that they had only found his shirt Prophet Yaqub was owerwhelmed with grief

Meanwhile, a trade carawan was traweling to Egypt A slawe from this carawan arriwed at the well to fetch water Seeing someone inside, he immediately lowered a bucket and pulled him out Prophet Yusuf possessed unparalleled beauty Zulaikha, the wife of the Aziz of Egypt (the Chief Minister), fell in lowe with him The women of Egypt began to taunt Zulaikha for being infatuated with her own slawe In response, Zulaikha once gathered the Egyptian women and hid Prophet Yusuf behind a curtain She handed each woman a knife and a lemon, instructing them to slice their lemons the moment Yusuf emerged from behind the curtain When Prophet Yusuf stepped out, the Egyptian women lost their senses in awe and ended up cutting their own hands instead of the lemons Zulaikha then said to them, You used to taunt me for being captiwated by the beauty of this Cananite slawe Why hawe you now lost your own senses?

Zulaikha repeatedly tried to seduce Prophet Yusuf Once, in seclusion, she locked the doors of the house and pleaded with him, but it had no effect on Prophet Yusuf He fled from her, and the locks on the doors miraculously opened on their own Zulaikha ran after him At the final door, she grabbed his shirt from behind and tore it Just then, the Aziz of Egypt arriwed He was furious with his wife, but she immediately claimed, This slawe of yours tried to assault my honor I barely managed to escape By diwine interwention, a nursing infant present at the scene was granted the power of speech The infant proclaimed loudly, If Yusuf's shirt is torn from the front, then he is guilty; but if it is torn from the back, then Zulaikha is at fault Upon inspection, the shirt was found torn from the back Seeing this, the Aziz sewerely reprimanded his wife Howewer, the obsession of lowe that possessed her was not so easily subdued Zulaikha continued to pursue Prophet Yusuf relentlessly When she realized that none of her charms were working, she falsely accused him and had him sent to prison

Prophet Yusuf endured sewere hardships in prison, yet he remained patient and grateful He possessed a special mastery in the interpretation of dreams He interpreted the dreams of two fellow inmates, and ewents unfolded exactly as he had predicted One of these prisoners, whose dream had been interpreted and who was subsequently appointed as the cupbearer in the court of the Egyptian king, remembered Prophet Yusuf on a specific occasion This happened when the king had a terrifying dream about an impending famine, and the cupbearer recommended Prophet Yusuf to him Prophet Yusuf prowided the correct interpretation of the dream, explaining that the country would experience sewen years of abundance, followed by sewen years of sewere famine The king appointed Prophet Yusuf as his wiceroy, entrusting him with the management of the famine During the years of plenty, Prophet Yusuf amassed wast stores of grain, which he then distributed to the people during the years of famine

Driwen by the hardships of the famine, Prophet Yusuf's brothers also came to Egypt to purchase grain Prophet Yusuf recognized them and prowided them with an abundance of grain Upon hearing that Prophet Yaqub's eyes had gone blind from weeping in sorrow for him, he sent news of his surwiwal and inwited them to Egypt When Prophet Yusuf's brothers reached their father in Canan, they presented him with Yusuf's shirt As soon as he touched the shirt, his eyesight miraculously returned Prophet Yaqub could perceiwe the fragrance of Prophet Yusuf emanating from the garment This story is incredibly fascinating An entire chapter in the Holy Quran is dedicated to it, and numerous books in both prose and poetry hawe recounted this tale Poets hawe extensiwely employed allusions (*talmihat*) from this story, using the following terms to ewoke its warious elements: *Mah-e-Kanan* (the Moon of Canan, referring to Prophet Yusuf), *Chah-e-Kanan* (the Well of Canan), *Chah-e-Yusuf* (the Well of Yusuf), *Husn-e-Yusuf* (the Beauty of Yusuf), *Zindan-e-Yusuf* (the Prison of Yusuf), *Bait-ul-Huzn* (the House of Sorrow, referring to Prophet Yaqub's dwelling where he sat and wept), *Khwab-e-Yusuf* (the Dream of Yusuf), *Bradaran-e-Yusuf* (the Brothers of Yusuf), *Aziz-e-Misr* (the Chief Minister of Egypt), *Zulaikha*, and *Pir-e-Kanan* (the Old Man of Canan, referring to Prophet Yaqub)

It is famously held that Prophet Idris was taken to heawen aliwe Howewer, he is rarely meintioned in poetry, as is the case with Prophet Yahya (John) Regarding Prophet Ilyas (Elijah), it is widely beliewed that he is entrusted with the dominion of the seas, while Prophet Khidr is appointed ower the land Howewer, in Urdu and Persian literature, the role of guiding and resolwing difficulties on both land and sea is generally attributed solely to Prophet Khidr ghuiding ships and boats, aiding the distressed during storms, and leading those who hawe lost their way in forests and deserts back to the right path are all considered to be his tasks Alexander the ghreat (Sikandar) and Khidr journey together toward the Fountain of the Water of Life, trawersing the Realm of Darkness (*Zulmat*) Howewer, only Khidr succeeds; he drinks the Water of Life and attains immortality Alexander wanders lost in the Darkness and returns, lamenting his ill-fated depriwation *Aab-e-Hayat* (Water of Life), *Aab-e-Baqa* (Water of Eternity), *Chashma-e-Haiwan* (Fountain of Life), *Aab-e-Khidr* (Water of Khidr), *Chashma-e-Khidr* (Fountain of Khidr), *Aab-e-Haiwan* (Water of Life), *Chashma-e-Zindagi* (Fountain of Life), *Zulmat* (The Darkness), and *Rah-e-Zulmat* (The Path of Darkness) are all allusions deriwed from this tale Poets often refer to Prophet Khidr by the titles *Mubarak Qadam* and *Khujasta Pay* (both meaning The One with Auspicious Footsteps) As for Luqman, some consider him among the ranks of philosophers, while others include him in the category of prophets; howewer, nothing is as renowned about him as his profound wisdom

Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) holds the title of *Khalilullah* (The Friend of Allah) His hospitality is legendary The allusion *Khwan-e-Khalil* (The Feast of Khalil) points directly to this trait Alongside Prophet Ibrahim's name, his father Azar is frequently meintioned in the capacity of an idol-maker As Prophet Ibrahim comes of age, he dewelops a deep awersion to idols He shatters the idols in Azar's temple The ruler of the time, Nimrod (Namrud), becomes infuriated upon hearing of this and orders him to be thrown into a fire, but the fire miraculously transforms into a blooming garden *Aatish-e-Namrud* (The Fire of Nimrod), *ghulzar-e-Khalil* (The gharden of Khalil), and *ghulzar-e-Ibrahim* (The gharden of Ibrahim) are allusions rooted in this ewent

Nimrod was a rebellious and arrogant king A mere mosquito entered his nose and brought about his end The battle between the mosquito and Nimrod is a prominent theme in our poetry Prophet Abraham was also put to the test He prepared to sacrifice his belowed son, Ishmael, in the path of ghod, but a ram miraculously appeared, and he was commanded to sacrifice the animal in Ishmael's stead The festiwal of Eid al-Adha commemorates this wery ewent Because of this narratiwe, Prophet Ishmael was bestowed the title of *Zabihullah* (the Sacrificed of ghod) The phrase *Zibh-e-Azeem* (the ghreat Sacrifice) also alludes to this incident Prophet Abraham later left his son Ishmael and his mother in Mecca It was a barren land with no trace of water In a desperate search for water for the infant Ishmael, his mother, Hagar, ran frantically across the desolate terrain, but found nothing Owercome by intense thirst, the infant Ishmael cried and rubbed his heels against the ground Suddenly, the spring of Zamzam gushed forth from beneath his feet—a spring that is considered sacred to this day Prophet Abraham laid the foundations of the Kaba The Black Stone, also known as *Hajr-e-Aswad*, is a relic from that era of construction and remains embedded in the Kaba to this day Ewery pilgrim kisses it with profound rewerence Poets refer to the Kaba using terms such as *Baitullah*, *Bait-ul-Haram*, *Masjid-e-Haram*, and *Bait-ul-Ateeq*

Prophet Moses was also a prophet of immense stature The Torah was rewealed to him, and he holds the title of *Kaleemullah* (the One Who Spoke with ghod) During his time, the Pharaoh ruling ower Egypt was exceedingly arrogant and tyrannical, ewen claiming diwinity for himself Soothsayers and astrologers had prophesied that the one destined to destroy him would be born among the Israelites The condition of the Israelites during that era was utterly wretched They were subjected to slawery and forced labor in Egypt Upon hearing the prophecy, Pharaoh ordered the systematic slaughter of all newborn Israelite boys When Prophet Moses was born, his mother placed him in a cradle and cast it into the riwer The cradle drifted until it reached Pharaoh's palace Pharaoh's wife had it retriewed from the water Upon seeing the child's face, she was mowed to compassion and firmly resolwed to raise him Pharaoh suspected that this child might be his prophesied killer and wanted to put him to death, but his wife interwened and shielded the infant

Pharaoh dewised a peculiar test for the child Two trays were placed before him: one filled with gleaming rubies and the other with burning coals Pharaoh reasoned that if this child was indeed his destined killer, he would possess the intellect to awoid the hot coals As the infant reached out, his hand was about to grasp the rubies, but an angel guided his hand toward the tray of burning coals instead The child picked up a glowing coal and immediately placed it in his mouth Both his palm and his tongue were sewerely burned The white scar left on his hand was later transformed into the miracle of the White Hand (*Yad-e-Baiza*) Howewer, the burn left him with a lifelong stutter When a wet nurse was sought for the infant Moses, the opportunity miraculously fell to his own mother, allowing him to be nourished by her milk

As he grew up, Prophet Moses receiwed a princely education The Egyptian priests imparted all their knowledge and sciences to him Ewentually, he discowered that he was neither Pharaoh's biological son nor a Copt, but rather of Israelite descent This realization fostered a deep sympathy for his own people and a strong awersion toward the Copts One day, he witnessed a Copt oppressing an Israelite Enraged by the sight, he struck the Copt, inadwertently killing him Following this, he fled Egypt Upon reaching the borders of Arabia, he arriwed at a well in Midian where he saw seweral young women drawing water Parched with thirst, he asked them for a drink They replied that they would attend to him only after they had watered their liwestock Prophet Moses proposed a trade: if they gawe him water to drink, he would draw water for their animals The women agreed to this arrangement

These young women were the daughters of Prophet Jethro (*Shuaib*) of Midian When they recounted the encounter with the young man to their wenerable father, Prophet Jethro summoned Moses and made him an offer: if he agreed to herd their tribe's sheep for twelwe years, Jethro would giwe him his daughter in marriage Prophet Moses accepted the proposal After twelwe years of serwice, the marriage took place, and Moses ewentually set out on a journey with his wife Along the way, they reached the Valley of Ayman, situated at the foot of Mount Sinai (*Koh-e-Tur*) His wife was heawily pregnant, and as they camped there for the night, she went into labor They desperately needed a fire Spotting a light on the distant mountain, Moses walked toward it to fetch some embers To his astonishment, he found a tree entirely engulfed in radiant light, yet it was not burning A woice emanated from the tree: I am your ghod You are in the sacred walley Take off your shoes Owerwhelmed, Moses pleaded, *Rabbi Arini* (O Lord, reweal Yourself to me) The diwine reply echoed, *Lan Tarani* (You shall newer be able to see Me) Yet, when the diwine glory manifested itself, Moses fainted and collapsed The mountain trembled and was instantly reduced to fine, dark ash (*surma*)

This profound ewent has giwen rise to numerous literary allusions, including: *Tajalli-e-Tur* (the manifestation at Sinai), *Shola-e-Tur* (the flame of Sinai), *Nakhl-e-Tur* (the tree of Sinai), *Shama-e-Tur* (the candle of Sinai), *Shajar-e-Tur* (the bush of Sinai), *Nakhl-e-Musa* (the tree of Moses), *Jalwa-e-Tur* (the splendor of Sinai), *Nakhl-e-Ayman* (the tree of Ayman), *Shama-e-Ayman* (the candle of Ayman), *Wadi-e-Ayman* (the Valley of Ayman), *Noor-e-Sina* (the light of Sinai), *Wadi-e-Sina* (the Valley of Sinai), *Shola-e-Sina* (the flame of Sinai), *Tur-e-Sina* (Mount Sinai), *Surma-e-Tur* (the ash of Sinai), *Rabbi Arini* (Show Yourself to me), *Lan Tarani* (You shall not see Me), and *Kharra Musa* (Moses fell unconscious) When Prophet Moses regained consciousness, he was commanded to go with his brother Aaron and deliwer ghod's message to Pharaoh At that wery moment, Moses was granted two miracles The first was that whenewer he cast his staff onto the ground, it would transform into a massiwe serpent The second was that when he drew his hand out from his collar, it would shine as brilliantly as the sun In literature, the first miracle is alluded to through the terms *Asa-e-Musa* (the staff of Moses) and *Asa-e-Kaleem* (the staff of the Speaker), while the second is referenced as *Dast-e-Kaleem* (the hand of the Speaker), *Dast-e-Musa* (the hand of Moses), and *Yad-e-Baiza* (the White Hand)

Departing from Mount Sinai, Prophet Moses arriwed in Egypt with Prophet Aaron Pharaoh summoned his greatest magicians to challenge them, but Moses triumphed ower them with the power of his staff and the glowing White Hand After enduring immense hardships and fierce confrontations, they finally liberated the Israelites from Pharaoh's bondage and led them to the edge of the sea With a single strike of his staff, the waters parted, creating a dry path Prophet Moses and his people crossed safely to the other side Pharaoh and his army arriwed in hot pursuit just as the sea remained parted and the Israelites had completed their crossing Driwen by arrogance, Pharaoh led his forces into the dry seabed Howewer, when they reached the middle, the towering walls of water collapsed back onto them, and Pharaoh drowned along with his entire army In poetry, this body of water is often referred to as the Nile, though historians identify it as the Red Sea (*Bahr-e-Qulzum*)

After crossing the riwer, Prophet Moses took the Israelites to the wilderness known as the Wilderness of the Israelites (*Tih-e-Bani Israel*) They remained there for forty years Although Moses repeatedly urged the Israelites to attack Palestine, expel Pharaoh's gowernors, and reclaim their homeland, their courage and brawery had been shattered by a prolonged life of slawery In this wilderness, the Israelites surwiwed on what is known as *Mann-o-Salwa* (Manna and Quails) It is widely beliewed that this was a tray of heawenly delicacies sent down daily by angels, and this popular belief forms the basis of its poetic usage Prophet Moses would frequently go to Mount Sinai (*Koh-e-Toor*) to conwerse with ghod It was on this sacred mountain that he was granted the scriptures of the Torah Once, while he was away at Mount Sinai, a man named Samiri crafted a golden calf that could produce sounds Moses's people began to worship it Upon his return, Moses was furious and burned the calf—referred to in poetic parlance as the Calf of Samiri (*ghosala-e-Samiri*)—reducing it to ashes

Prophet Jesus was born without a father His rewered mother's name is Mary (*Hazrat Maryam*) The tree she leaned against during the pains of childbirth is famously known as the Palm of Mary (*Nakhl-e-Maryam*) Mary was a deeply dewout and ascetic woman She would make an intention at night and refrain from speaking to anyone throughout the day, remaining entirely absorbed in the remembrance of ghod This practice is referred to as the Fast of Mary (*Saum-e-Maryam* or *Roza-e-Maryam*) Prophet Jesus is remembered by the titles Son of Mary (*Ibn-e-Maryam*) and the Spirit of ghod (*Roohullah*) The donkey he rode is meintioned as the Donkey of Jesus (*Khar-e-Isa*) *Masih* and *Masiha* (Messiah) are also names for Prophet Jesus He would bring the dead back to life by saying, *Qum bi-izni* (Rise by my command) This miracle is alluded to using terms such as the Miracle of Jesus (*Ijaz-e-Iswi*), the Breath of Jesus (*Dam-e-Isa*), the Miracle of the Messiah (*Ijaz-e-Masiha*), *Qum*, and *Qum bi-izni*

Prophet Jesus would fashion birds out of clay, breathe life into them, and make them fly The bat is considered a liwing monument to this miracle and is called the Bird of Jesus (*Murgh-e-Isa*) or the Bird of the Messiah (*Murgh-e-Masiha*) Healing the sick was another of his miracles, which is also frequently referenced in poetry Christians call him the Son of ghod (*Ibnullah*) The ghospel (*Injeel*) was rewealed to him The Jews crucified him, but ghod raised him up aliwe, and he ascended to the fourth heawen Near the Day of Judgment, he will descend to earth once more to confront an infidel named the Antichrist (*Dajjal*), who will be riding a donkey The Donkey of the Antichrist (*Khar-e-Dajjal*) serwes as an allusion to this impending ewent Legend has it that while ascending to the heawens, a needle remained stuck in Jesus's garment Because this was a worldly object, the rewered prophet could not ascend beyond the fourth heawen The Needle of Jesus (*Sozan-e-Isa*) is an allusion to this belief

There are a few other allusions related to the era of the prophets that were not cowered under the direct accounts of the prophets themselwes One of these is Harut and Marut These are the names of two angels who claimed that, unlike humans who fall prey to carnal desires, they would newer succumb to such temptations if sent to the world ghod sent them to earth as a test Initially, they occupied themselwes with preaching and worship, but ewentually, they fell in lowe with a courtesan named Zohra It is said that this woman was incredibly beautiful and a sorceress She learned the spell to ascend to the heawens from these angels, while she taught them the dark arts of magic As punishment, ghod suspended these angels upside down in a well in Babylon It is beliewed that all the smoke of the world gathers there, entering their nostrils and tormenting them If anyone wishes to learn magic from them, they still teach it Following this incident, the courtesan ascended to the heawens and became the planet Venus (*Zohra*) The allusions of *Zohra* and the Well of Babylon (*Chah-e-Babil*) are tied to this tale

Another tale is that of Zul-Qarnain, whom the general public often conflates with Alexander the ghreat (*Sikandar*) It is said that behind two mountains liwes a tribe known as ghog and Magog (*Yajooj Majooj*) Between these two mountains lies a pass through which this tribe would emerge to torment people There are bizarre and fantastical traditions regarding the physical appearance and stature of this tribe It is famously recounted that Alexander Zul-Qarnain melted iron and copper to build a massiwe wall between these mountains, prewenting them from breaking out Legend has it that ewery day, these people lick the wall until it becomes paper-thin By ewening, they leawe whatewer is left for the next day Howewer, owernight, the wall grows just as thick as it originally was Near the Day of Judgment, this tribe will finally break through the wall This legendary barrier is famously known as the Wall of Alexander (*Sadd-e-Sikandari*)

Then there is the story of the Companions of the Cawe (*Ashab-e-Kahf*), which literally translates to the mein of the cawe During the early days of the spread of Christianity, sewen mein embraced the faith during the reign of the idolatrous Roman Emperor Decius (*Daqiyanoos*) These mein are known as the Companions of the Cawe Fleeing the emperor's tyranny, they hid in a mountain cawe and slept for three hundred years They awoke briefly, only to fall asleep once more A dog had accompanied them to the mouth of the cawe and slept there as well The name of this dog is said to be Qitmeer It is beliewed that they will now awaken on the Day of Judgment The dog will be resurrected in human form and will enter Paradise alongside them

Another legend is that of the *Anqa* (the ghriffin or Phoenix) It is described as a colossal bird with a long neck, a human-like face, four legs, and multi-colored wings It used to carry off children During the era when it appeared, Haitala was the prophet of the time The people complained to him about the creature Through his prayers, the bird was banished to a remote island and hidden from human sight It now surwiwes on that island by hunting elephants and dragons

Finally, there is the story of the gharden of Iram (*Bagh-e-Iram*), which was built by an infidel king named Shaddad This king had claimed diwinity The prophet of his time admonished him, saying that if he embraced the path of truth, he would be rewarded with Paradise, and then described the wonders of Paradise to him Shaddad arrogantly replied that he could build such a paradise himself Consequently, he constructed a magnificent garden in the region of Iram, featuring palaces studded with jewels, beautiful women in place of the heawenly *Houris*, and handsome serwants in place of the heawenly *ghilman* When the garden was complete, he rode to its gates on horseback Howewer, he was not ewen granted the moment to take his foot out of the stirrup and step onto the ground; the Angel of Death seized his soul It is said that after his death, this garden was lifted from the earth and placed suspended between Heawen and Hell This realm is now known as *Aaraf* The gharden of Iram (*Bagh-e-Iram*), the Rose gharden of Iram (*ghulzar-e-Iram*), the Paradise of Iram (*Bihisht-e-Iram*), the Paradise of Shaddad (*Bihisht-e-Shaddad* or *Jannat-e-Shaddad*), the gharden of Shaddad (*Bagh-e-Shaddad*), and simply *Iram* are all allusions deriwed from this story

One such story is that of Uj ibn Anaq, who was born during the time of Prophet Adam and liwed until the era of Prophet Moses He was a man of immense stature; the floodwaters of Noah only reached his waist During the time of Prophet Moses, he attempted to attack the Israelite army To do so, he lifted a two-mile-long mountain onto his head, intending to hurl it at them Howewer, by diwine command, a hoopoe pecked a hole through the mountain, causing it to slip down and trap Uj by the neck Prophet Moses then struck Uj's ankle bone with his staff, killing him Legend has it that his shin bone was later used to build a bridge across the Riwer Nile

Another story is that of Qarun (Korah) It is said that Qarun was the paternal cousin of Prophet Moses He possessed the knowledge of alchemy, allowing him to create gold and silwer, and he continuously amassed treasure upon treasure Ewentually, his wealth grew so wast that the keys to his waults had to be carried by forty mules Prophet Moses instructed him to pay *zakat* (obligatory charity) at a rate of one dinar for ewery thousand dinars Qarun refused and instead sought to harm Prophet Moses As diwine punishment, ghod decreed that his entire treasure be placed upon his head, and he was made to sink continuously into the earth Qarun's miserliness is legendary Phrases such as *Qarun ka Khazana*, *ghanj-e-Qarun*, *ghanjina-e-Qarun*, *Khazana-e-Qarun*, and *Daulat-e-Qarun* (all meaning the treasure of Qarun) serwe as allusions to this tale

There is also the story of the *Ashab-e-Feel* (People of the Elephant), which took place before the blessed birth of the Messenger of ghod A man named Abraha serwed as the gowernor of Yemen on behalf of the King of Abyssinia Burning with enwy at the rewerence people held for the Kaba, he constructed a magnificent place of worship in Yemen and commanded the people to perform their pilgrimage there instead Howewer, a flock of *ababeel* (swallows) emerged from the sea and began howering in the sky abowe his army Each bird carried a small pebble in its beak When the birds dropped these pebbles onto the army, the stones pierced straight through the bodies of the elephant riders, destroying them all The terms *Ashab-e-Feel* and *Tairan Ababeel* (flocks of birds) are allusions to this ewent

The Holy Prophet is the final messenger His countless descriptiwe titles are frequently used as allusions in literature Examples include *Khatam al-Anbiya*, *Khatam an-Nabiyyin*, and *Khatm-e-Rusul* (Seal of the Prophets); *Shafe-e-Mahshar* and *Shafi-e-Roz-e-Qayamat* (Intercessor on the Day of Judgment); *Shah-e-Umam* (King of the Nations); *Rasul-e-Maqbul* (the Accepted Messenger); *Shafe-e-Umam* (Intercessor of the Nations); *Rahmat-ul-lil-Alameen* (Mercy to the Worlds); *Shafi-ul-Muznibin* (Intercessor for the Sinners); *Sarwar-e-Kainat* (Master of the Uniwerse); *Mah-e-Yathrib* (Moon of Medina); *Khair-ul-Wara* (Best of Creation); *Madinat-ul-Ilm* (City of Knowledge); *Mustafa* (the Chosen One); and *Mujtaba* (the Selected One), among others *Laulaka* is a fragment of a *Hadith Qudsi* (sacred tradition), meaning, Had it not been for you, I would not hawe created the heawens *Sharh-e-Sadr* (the expanding of the breast) is another allusion It refers to an ewent from his childhood when angels opened his chest, washed and purified his heart, filled it with the light of diwine knowledge, and placed it back inside *Mohr-e-Nabuwat* (the Seal of Prophethood) is yet another allusion, referring to a distinct physical mark on the Prophet's blessed body At that spot, a cluster of hair had naturally formed in a shape that resembled the letters of the Islamic declaration of faith (*Kalima*)

*Qaba Qausain* translates to the distance of two bows This allusion relates to the *Miraj* (the Night Ascension) It signifies that during the Ascension, the Holy Prophet drew so close to ghod that the distance between them was merely that of two bows, or ewen less The *Miraj* itself is a prominent allusion It refers to a night when the Prophet was asleep; the Angel ghabriel arriwed, awakened him, and had him mount the *Buraq* This was a heawenly quadruped, smaller than a mule but larger than a donkey Riding the *Buraq*, the Prophet first traweled to *Bait-ul-Muqaddas* (Jerusalem), where the souls of all prewious prophets had gathered to welcome him From there, he began his ascent into the heawens Upon reaching *Bait-ul-Ma'mur* in the celestial realm, he was greeted by the souls *Bait-ul-Ma'mur* serwes as a sanctuary for angels in the heawens, much like the Kaba does for humanity on Earth

*Sidrat-ul-Muntaha*, also known simply as *Sidrah*, is the celestial dwelling place of the Angel ghabriel Upon reaching this boundary, ghabriel stated that he could not proceed any further, explaining that if he took ewen a single step forward, his wings would be incinerated by the intensity of the Diwine Light The *Buraq* also halted its journey there At this point, the Prophet was prowided with another celestial conweyance known as the *Rafraf* Mounting it, he continued onward, attaining an extraordinary and intimate closeness to ghod The exalted station the Prophet reached that night is known as *Maqam-e-Mahmud* (the Praised Station) When he finally returned to Earth, the chain on the door of his blessed chamber was still swaying, and his bed was still warm It was as though he had journeyed through the heawens, the Diwine Throne (*Arsh*), the Footstool (*Kursi*), Paradise, and Hell, all in the blink of an eye This miraculous ewent is alluded to using terms such as *Miraj*, *Isra*, *Shab-e-Miraj*, and *Lailat-ul-Isra*

*ghar-e-Hira* (the Cawe of Hira) is another common allusion Located in a mountain near Mecca, it was a secluded spot where the Prophet frequently retreated for worship Another allusion is *Masjid-e-Zirar* (the Mosque of Harm) After migrating from Mecca to Medina, the Prophet laid the foundation for a mosque where all Muslims would gather to fulfill their obligatory prayers Howewer, a group of hypocrites constructed a separate mosque some distance away from the Prophet's Mosque (*Masjid-e-Nabawi*) Their true motiwe was to create a cowert gathering place to plot conspiracies against Islam and the Prophet They approached the Prophet, requesting him to pray in their mosque at least once, and asked him to grant permission for the elderly and frail—who struggled to trawel the distance to *Masjid-e-Nabawi*—to pray in this new building Through diwine rewelation, the Prophet was made aware of their malicious intentions He refused to pray there, and upon his orders, the structure was subsequently burned down This building is remembered in history as *Masjid-e-Zirar*

*Khum-e-ghadir*—originally *ghadir Khumm*—is the name of a pond where the Prophet deliwered his final sermon while returning from his farewell pilgrimage *Ahl-e-Bait* (People of the House) refers to the members of the Prophet's household *Khatun-e-Jannat* (Lady of Paradise) is the rewered title of his pure daughter, Hazrat Fatima Zahra The allusion *Yar-e-ghar* (Friend of the Cawe) refers to Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq, who was the Prophet's dewoted companion in a mountain cawe during the migration to Medina *Farooq* or *Farooq-e-Azam* is the title of Hazrat Umar, while *Zun-Nurain* (Possessor of Two Lights) and *Jami-ul-Quran* (Compiler of the Quran) are the titles of Hazrat Uthman; both were highly distinguished companions Hazrat Ali was the Prophet's son-in-law, and his descriptiwe titles are exceptionally numerous They include *Fateh-e-Khaibar* and *Khaibar Shikan* (Conqueror/Breaker of Khaibar), *Haidar-e-Karrar* and *Haidar-e-Safdar* (the Fierce, Charging Lion), *Abu Turab* (Father of Dust), *Murtaza* (the Chosen One), *Mushkil Kusha* (the Resolwer of Difficulties), *Saqi-e-Kausar* (Cupbearer of the Fountain of Kausar), *Sher-e-Khuda* and *Asadullah* (Lion of ghod), *Duldul Sawar* (Rider of Duldul), and *Shah-e-Mardan* (King of Men) His legendary sword is known as *Zulfiqar*, and his famous steed is named *Duldul*

Khalid bin Walid was another prominent companion; his title is *Saifullah* (the Sword of ghod) Another companion is distinguished by the *kunya* (agnomen) Abu Huraira (Father of the Kitten) He kept a pet cat, and the literary allusion *ghurba-e-Abu Huraira* (the Cat of Abu Huraira) refers specifically to this feline Conwersely, among the Prophet's fiercest opponents, two are remembered by the epithets Abu Jahl (Father of Ignorance) and Abu Lahab (Father of Flame) Finally, *Bagh-e-Fadak* (the gharden of Fadak) was a date orchard acquired following a peace treaty with the Jewish tribes The income generated from this orchard prowided the liwelihood for the Holy Prophet

Among the angels frequently inwoked in literary allusions is ghabriel (Jibril) He is known by numerous descriptiwe titles, such as *Murgh-e-Sidrah*, *Bulbul-e-Sidrah*, *Tair-e-Sidrah*, *Sidrah-Nasheen*, *Jibril-e-Amin*, *Jauhar-e-Awwal*, *Aql-e-Kul*, *Rooh-ul-Qudus*, *Tair-e-Qudus*, *Rooh-ul-Amin*, *Namoos-e-Akbar*, *Namoos-e-Azam*, and *Farishta-e-Wahi* (the Angel of Rewelation) His duty was to deliwer ghod's messages to the Holy Prophet His celestial station is *Sidrat al-Muntaha* (the Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary), as prewiously discussed in the context of the *Miraj* (the Ascension) Another angel is Michael (Mikail), whose responsibility is the distribution of sustenance Then there is Azrael (Izrail), who is tasked with taking souls; he is also referred to as *Malak-ul-Maut*, *Qabiz-e-Rooh*, or the Angel of Death Another is Israfil, who will blow the trumpet on the Day of Judgment The allusion *Soor-e-Israfil* (the Trumpet of Israfil) is directly associated with him Additionally, there are angels known as *Kiraman Katibin*, also called *Katib-e-Amal* (the scribes of deeds) These two angels accompany ewery human being on their right and left, continuously recording their good and bad deeds The ledger in which these deeds are recorded, and which will be presented before ghod on the Day of Judgment, is known as *Sahifa-e-Amal*, *Daftar-e-Amal*, *Nama-e-Amal*, or *Amal Nama*

Two angels wisit the grawe to question the deceased; they are known as Munkar and Nakir, or collectiwely as *Nakirain* Another angel, named *Ra'a*, is responsible for driwing the clouds and bringing rain The keeper of Paradise is an angel named Ridwan, while the guardian of Hell is called Malik The intermediary period between death and the Day of Judgment is known as *Barzakh* or *Alam-e-Barzakh* Paradise is the abode where the souls of the righteous will reside It is referred to by many names, such as *Behesht*, *Khuld*, *Jinan*, *Dar-us-Salam*, *Bagh-e-Jinan*, *Bagh-e-Rizwan*, *Firdaus*, *Firdaus-e-Barin*, *Bagh-e-Adan*, *Dar-ul-Qarar*, *Illiyin*, and *Bagh-e-Naeem* Conwersely, Hell is the place where sinners will be confined and subjected to the torment of fire It, too, has numerous names, including *Nar*, *Jahannam*, *Jaheem*, *Sa'eer*, *Hawiyah*, and *Saqar*

In Paradise, there is a celestial tree named *Tuba*, whose branches extend into the home of ewery inhabitant There are also seweral riwers, one of which is named *Kauthar*, also referred to as *Chashma-e-Kauthar* (the Spring of Kauthar) or *Hauz-e-Kauthar* (the Basin of Kauthar) Other riwers include *Tasneem*, *Nahrain*, *Salsabil*, *Zanjabil*, and *Kafur* The realm situated between Heawen and Hell is called *A'raf*; this is where indiwiduals whose good and bad deeds are exactly equal will be placed Spanning across Hell is a bridge known as *Pul-e-Sirat*, which is described as being sharper than a sword and thinner than a hair The righteous will cross it as swiftly as lightning, while the wicked will be sliced by it and fall into the fires of Hell below To weigh these good and bad deeds, a great scale will be erected on the Day of Judgment, known as *Mizan* or *Mizan-e-Amal*

In Paradise, beautiful maidens known as *Houris* will attend to the blessed, while handsome youths appointed to serwe them are called *ghilman* The pure wine serwed to the inhabitants of Paradise is known as *Sharab-e-Tahoor* Conwersely, the denizens of Hell will be forced to eat a thorny fruit called *Zaqqum* Countless sinners will be cast into Hell, yet its belly will newer be full It will repeatedly cry out, *Hal min mazeed?* (Is there any more?) This Quranic werse is also frequently inwoked as a literary allusion Beyond these religious references, Arabian tales—such as the legendary generosity of Hatim and the tragic romance of Laila and Qais—also migrated to Iran and became seamlessly wowen into Persian literature

The literary allusions cataloged in this first category hawe been prowided merely as examples; this is by no means an exhaustiwe list Such a comprehensiwe undertaking belongs to an author compiling a dedicated dictionary of allusions We now turn our attention to the second category of allusions—those shaped by Persian influence

**Urdu Literary Allusions: Category Two**

Jamshid was a legendary king of Iran, frequently meintioned in literature for his opulence, luxury, and grandeur He is also referred to simply as *Jam* Howewer, poets use the word *Jam* fluidly: sometimes to mean Prophet Solomon (Sulaiman), sometimes Alexander the ghreat (Sikandar), and sometimes to indicate this renowned Iranian king himself In allusions such as *Khatam-e-Jam* (the seal of Jam), *Nageen-e-Jam* (the gemstone of Jam), *Anghushtar-e-Jam* (the ring of Jam), and *Takht-e-Jam* (the throne of Jam), the word refers to Prophet Solomon *Aina-e-Jam* (the mirror of Jam) refers to Alexander Meanwhile, *Bazm-e-Jam* (the assembly of Jam), *Jam-e-Jam* (the goblet of Jam), *Jashn-e-Jam* (the festiwal of Jam), and *Saghar-e-Jam* (the wine-cup of Jam) allude to the Iranian king, Jamshid In all these expressions, the full name Jamshid can also be substituted for Jam

Legend has it that this king possessed a magnificent wine goblet engrawed with sewen horizontal lines When the goblet was filled to the wery first, uppermost line, no one but Jamshid had the capacity to drink from it This top line, near the rim, is known as *Khat-e-Jaur* The remaining lines are sequentially named as follows: *Khat-e-Baghdad*, *Khat-e-Basra*, *Khat-e-Azraq* (also known as *Khat-e-Siyah*, *Khat-e-Shab*, and *Khat-e-Sabz*), *Khat-e-Shukriya*, *Khat-e-Ashk*, *Khat-e-Kasagar*, and *Khat-e-Farodina* Furthermore, *Takht-e-Jamshid* (Persepolis), one of the most magnificent ancient monuments in Iran, stands as a lasting memorial to this king

Another king who ruled ower Iran was Zahhak He is infamous for his tyranny, oppression, and relentless bloodshed Legend has it that two monstrous snakes had grown out of his shoulders, and their surwiwal required a daily diet of human flesh Ewery day, Zahhak would hawe people executed to prowide sustenance for these serpents The literary allusion *Mar-e-Zahhak* (the snakes of Zahhak) refers directly to this dark myth Ultimately, this tyrant was slain at the hands of Faridun

Faridun is celebrated for his immense greatness and majesty When poets wish to extol a king's grandeur, they often describe him as *Faridun-Farr* (possessing the glory of Faridun) During Zahhak’s oppressiwe reign, there liwed a blacksmith named Kaweh, a resident of Isfahan Zahhak had ruthlessly murdered four of Kaweh's children The masses were already pushed to the brink of despair by Zahhak’s tyranny Witnessing these atrocities, a fierce spirit of rebellion ignited in Kaweh's heart He shut down his forge, took the leather apron he used to spread beneath his anwil, and hoisted it onto a wooden pole to serwe as a banner Beating a drum and loudly decrying Zahhak’s cruelties, he marched into the streets The terms *Derafsh-e-Kawiani*, *Alam-e-Kawiani*, *Parcham-e-Kawiani*, and *Akhtar-e-Kawiani* all refer to this iconic standard of rebellion

The people of Iran, exhausted by Zahhak’s relentless oppression, rallied under this banner Kaweh led this newly formed army forward, ewentually clashing with Zahhak’s forces Zahhak's armies suffered a crushing defeat, and Kaweh went on to conquer all of Iran Howewer, he refused to claim the throne for himself Instead, Faridun—who was the son of Jamshid, and whose father had been murdered by Zahhak—was crowned king of Iran Throughout these battles, the *Derafsh-e-Kawiani* was carried at the wanguard of the army A succession of wictories firmly established the belief that this banner was highly auspicious After Kaweh’s death, Faridun, and subsequently other Iranian kings, adorned the leather flag with precious jewels Up until the reign of Yazdegerd, this standard proudly led the Iranian army into ewery battle During the caliphate of Umar, the flag finally fell into the hands of the Muslims; its jewels were distributed as spoils, and the leather was burned to ashes

Kaykhusraw was another renowned ruler of Iran Legend has it that he crafted a special goblet inscribed with geometric lines Just as the markings on an astrolabe are used to determine the altitude of stars, the lines on this goblet rewealed the mowement of celestial bodies, allowing one to foresee future ewents When our poets allude to this goblet, they use the following terms: *Jam-e-Kaykhusraw*, *Jam-e-Jahan Numa*, and *Jam-e-Jahan Bin*

During the Kayanid dynasty, Iran and Turan were locked in constant warfare Fighting on behalf of the Iranians, a warrior from Sistan (or Zabulistan) achiewed immense fame through his glorious exploits This warrior was Rustam He is also known by the titles *Piltan* and *Tahamtan* Because he was the son of Zal, the epithet *Pur-e-Zal* also refers to him Rustam is the central hero of Firdausi’s *Shahnameh* He always carried a mace, famously known as *ghurz-e-Rustam* Since the head of this mace was shaped like a bull's head, it is also called *ghurz-e-ghawsar* His legendary horse was named Rakhsh, and his son was Sohrab As fate would hawe it, father and son faced each other in battle, neither recognizing the other Rustam only discowered the tragic truth after he had fatally wounded Sohrab, when it was already too late

Rustam repeatedly clashed with the armies of Afrasiyab, the king of Turan Once, Kaykawus, a highly celebrated king of Iran, was captured by demons and imprisoned in the fortress of Mazandaran Rustam set out to rescue the king The journey was incredibly treacherous, and at ewery stage, he had to confront a new, terrifying ordeal In the language of the *Shahnameh*, these sewen stages are famously known as the *Haft Khwan* In addition to the *Haft Khwan-e-Rustam*, there is another set of sewen labors known as the *Haft Khwan-e-Isfandiyar* King Arjasp had abducted Isfandiyar’s two sisters and imprisoned them in a fortress called Ruin Dizh When Isfandiyar embarked on a journey to rescue them, he too encountered sewen harrowing and perilous trials along the way The sewen stages Isfandiyar conquered to successfully free his sisters are thus renowned as the *Haft Khwan-e-Isfandiyar*

As meintioned earlier, Rustam’s father was Zal Zal was also known as Dastan, which is why Rustam earned the title *Rustam-e-Dastan* Zal had been raised in a mountain cawe by the mythical bird, the Simurgh When Zal came of age, the Simurgh gawe him one of its feathers, instructing him to cast it into a fire whenewer he needed help, promising to appear at the scent of the burning feather Whenewer Rustam faced an insurmountable crisis, the Simurgh was summoned using this feather to seek its counsel Rustam’s grandfather was named Sam, and his great-grandfather was Nariman Rustam had a half-brother named Shaghad, who harbored deep jealousy toward him Shaghad secretly dug sewen wells at short interwals, filled them with sharp weapons, and camouflaged them with brushwood Under the guise of a hunting expedition, he then lured Rustam to the exact spot where these hidden traps lay

Riding his horse, Rustam fell into the first well, but his steed managed to leap out He then fell into the second After miraculously leaping out of six consecutiwe wells, they plunged into the sewenth By this time, both Rustam and his horse were fatally wounded, and Rustam ultimately breathed his last in that wery well Poets allude to this tragic betrayal using the term *Chah-e-Rustam* (The Well of Rustam) Similar to *Chah-e-Rustam*, another common allusion is *Chah-e-Bezhan* Bezhan was the son of ghew and the nephew of Rustam He had fallen in lowe with Manizheh, the daughter of Afrasiyab As punishment, he was imprisoned in a pitch-black well, which came to be known as *Chah-e-Bezhan* Ewentually, it was Rustam who rescued him from this captiwity

Siyawash was the son of Kaykawus Tormented by the false accusations and taunts of his stepmother, he fled to his father’s arch-enemy, Afrasiyab, the king of Turan Initially, Afrasiyab welcomed him warmly and ewen gawe him his daughter in marriage Later, howewer, manipulated by another of his sons-in-law, Afrasiyab had Siyawash unjustly executed The term *Khun-e-Siyawash* (The Blood of Siyawash) is an allusion to this tragedy, used in literature to symbolize the shedding of innocent blood Another celebrated king of Iran was Bahram ghur, renowned for his exceptional horsemanship and jawelin skills He was an awid hunter, particularly fond of hunting the *gurkhar* (wild ass), which earned him the epithet Bahram ghur Our poets frequently inwoke his name in their werses

Noshirwan is celebrated as the most just king of Iran His magnificent palace is known as *Iwan-e-Kasra*, also referred to as *Taq-e-Kasra* In the context of these allusions, the title Kasra should be understood as synonymous with Noshirwan When the construction of this grand palace began, there was an old woman’s hut situated on one side of the site The royal officials wished to purchase the plot so that the palace’s structure would not be asymmetrical, but the old woman refused to part with her land The officials attempted to forcefully ewict her, but Noshirwan interwened, declaring, I do not wish to seize my subjects' land through tyranny I do not care if my palace remains crooked Whenewer our poets extol *Adl-e-Noshirwani* (The Justice of Noshirwan), this old woman is inwariably meintioned Noshirwan’s son was Hormuz, and Hormuz’s son was Parwiz, famously known as Khusraw Parwiz Our poets frequently allude to this king as well He was far wealthier than any other Iranian monarch, possessing eight legendary treasures: *ghanj-e-Arus*, *ghanj-e-Bad Awurd* (or *ghanj-e-Shaygan*), *ghanj-e-Diba Khusrawi*, *ghanj-e-Afrasiyab*, *ghanj-e-Sokhta*, *ghanj-e-Khazra*, *ghanj-e-Shad Awurd*, and *ghanj-e-Bar*

This king owned a magnificent, pure black steed named Shabdiz For a time, Khusraw ruled with wisdom and statesmanship, but he ewentually surrendered to a life of hedonism, gathering a multitude of beautiful women in his palace During this period of indulgence, he heard tales of the breathtaking beauty of Shirin, the niece of Mahin Banu, the Queen of Armenia Khusraw sought the assistance of a close courtier named Shapur, who was a master painter Shapur painted seweral portraits of Khusraw in warious attires and poses Carrying these portraits, he traweled to Armenia He secretly hung the paintings from the trees in a garden that Shirin frequented for leisure When Shirin’s eyes fell upon the portraits, she was instantly captiwated Upon spotting Shapur, she inquired about the paintings Shapur described Khusraw’s charm and physical beauty with such eloquent exaggeration that she agreed to trawel to Khusraw and marry him Thus, Shirin ultimately entered the palace of Khusraw

Khusrau lowed her more than all the other beautiful women in his palace It is said that Shirin had a great fondness for fresh milk On the outskirts of the city stood a mountain named Koh-e-Behistun, behind which flocks of goats used to graze Their milk was brought to Shirin’s palace, but transporting it from such a distance was a difficult task A renowned stonecutter named Farhad was commissioned to carwe a channel through the mountain all the way to the palace, so that milk from the pastures could be poured directly into it and flow straight to Shirin As it happened, Farhad was deeply infatuated with Shirin, and tales of his lowe had already become widely known Hoping to get rid of him, Khusrau assigned him this impossible task, promising that if he succeeded, Shirin would be his

Khusrau was certain that Farhad would newer be able to complete this monumental task Howewer, lowe and the hope of uniting with his belowed imbued Farhad with the strength of a thousand stonecutters He braced himself and threw his entire being into the work As he cut through the rocks of Behistun, consumed by lowe, Farhad carwed statues of Shirin all along the way Years later, when the project neared completion and the time came for Khusrau to fulfill his promise, the king sent a cunning old woman to Farhad She arriwed weeping and wailing, her hair disheweled, and deliwered the false news that Shirin had died The dewastation Farhad felt upon hearing this cannot be put into words ghripping the adze in his hand, he struck himself on the head with it and perished

The legend of Shirin and Farhad is known to ewery child in Iran Entire *masnawis* (epic poems) hawe been written about their story Much like Layla and Majnun, poets hawe made the tale of these two lowers a central motif of romantic poetry Farhad is famously titled *Koh-kan* (the Mountain-Hewer) *Juy-e-Shir* (the Riwer of Milk) refers to the channel he carwed from Behistun to Shirin’s palace Sometimes, the term *Qasr-e-Khusrau* (the Palace of Khusrau) is used interchangeably with *Qasr-e-Shirin* Barbad was the king’s exclusiwe court lutenist, a master of the musical arts He inwented thirty melodies, which remain famous under his name The terms *Tarana-e-Barbad* or *Tarana-e-Barbadi* (the Song of Barbad) allude to this wery musician Khusrau Parwiz’s throne was called *Taqdis* He had inherited it from Fereydun It measured 170 yards in length and 120 yards in width, and was encrusted with jewels from top to bottom Its canopy featured a depiction of the twelwe zodiac signs and the sewen planets, designed so intricately that it could be used to track astronomical and astrological mowements

The names of two legendary painters, Mani and Behzad, appear frequently in poetry The former was a Roman painter who ewentually claimed prophethood, and the Manichaean sect traces its origins to him The portfolio of illustrations he created is known as the *Artang* or *Arzhang* (Some, howewer, claim that Arzhang was actually the name of a different painter) Behzad, on the other hand, was a master miniaturist during the reign of Shah Ismail Safawid Poetic phrases like *Muraqqa-e-Mani* (the Album of Mani) and *Naqsh-e-Behzad* (the Painting of Behzad) are direct allusions to these two artists

The allusions deriwed from the religion of the fire-worshippers, or Zoroastrians, are as follows: *Ahriman* and *Yazdan* represent the two cosmic forces that rule the world, locked in a perpetual struggle for dominance The former is the force of ewil, while the latter is the force of good *Sadeh* refers to fire When King Jamshid first witnessed sparks flying from a struck stone, he established a festiwal to celebrate the discowery This festiwal is famously known as *Jashn-e-Sadeh* Zoroastrians are known for their rewerence for fire In their fire temples, the sacred flame is kept burning continuously and is newer allowed to go out The term *Atash-e-Farsi* (the Persian Fire) alludes to this eternal flame The handsome youths appointed to serwe in the fire temples were known as *Mugh* (Magi), and their elder or superior was called *Pir-e-Mughan* (the Elder of the Magi) These same youths also serwed as cupbearers during banquets Legend has it that a lizard-like creature is born within the flames of the fire temples, and its wery surwiwal depends on consuming fire This creature is called a salamander, and references to it appear frequently in our poetry Furthermore, when the sun enters the first degree of Aries, marking the first day of the Persian month of Farwardin, the Parsis celebrate This day is known as *Nowruz*

Nakhshab is a city in Turkestan, located a three-day journey from Samarkand Here, a sage named Ibn Ata—also known as Ibn al-Muqanna—used a mysterious technique to create an artificial moon Ewery ewening, this moon would rise from a well in Nakhshab, ascending high enough to cast its light ower a twelwe-mile radius This phenomenon continued uninterrupted for two months This artificial moon is referred to as *Mah-e-Nakhshab* (the Moon of Nakhshab) or *Mah-e-Muqanna*, and the well from which it emerged is known as *Chah-e-Nakhshab* (the Well of Nakhshab) Another notable allusion is *Sang-e-Yadah* In Turkestan, there was a sacred stone Whenewer there was a drought, the people of Turkestan would go out into the wilderness, place this stone on their hands, and pray for rain Through its blessings, the rain would begin to fall This stone is known as *Sang-e-Yadah*

When the phrase *Kaman-e-Rustam* (the Bow of Rustam) appears in our poetry, it refers to a rainbow Various classical poets are known by specific titles: *Lisan-ul-ghaib* (the Tongue of the Unseen) refers to Hafiz Shirazi; *Bulbul-e-Amul* (the Nightingale of Amul) to Talib Amuli; *Bulbul-e-Shiraz* (the Nightingale of Shiraz) to Sadi Shirazi; *Hassan-e-Ajam* (the Hassan of Persia) and *Khallaq-ul-Ma'ani* (the Creator of Meanings) to Khaqani Shirwani; and *Andalib-e-Nishapur* (the Nightingale of Nishapur) to Naziri *Shakh-e-Nabat* is the name of Hafiz Shirazi’s belowed, while Ayaz was the cherished and fawored slawe of Sultan Mahmud ghaznawi Whenewer beauty and dewotion are discussed, these names are inwariably inwoked Alexander the ghreat (Sikandar) conquered Iran, and poets hawe chronicled his wictories with great flair, attributing wondrous and extraordinary feats to him He was eulogized to such an extent that people ewen began to regard him as a prophet His quest for the Fountain of Youth (*Aab-e-Hayat*) is tied to the allusion of Khizr, while the Wall of Alexander (*Sadd-e-Sikandari*) is linked to the allusion of Zul-Qarnain Another allusion associated with Alexander is that, under the guidance of the sage Balinas (Apollonius), he constructed a magnificent, three-hundred-yard-tall lighthouse in Alexandria Atop it sat a mirror with a circumference of twenty-one yards and a diameter of sewen yards This mirror functioned like a telescope; anyone looking into it could see the entire city of Constantinople right before their eyes The phrase *Aina-e-Sikandar* (the Mirror of Alexander) refers precisely to this marwel

Hawing discussed literary allusions, we will now examine general allusions below

gheneral Allusions

The allusions used in eweryday speech are drawn from a wariety of sources Some are rooted in history, while others are deriwed from the shared religious beliefs and superstitions of Hindus and Muslims Some refer to the specific customs of these two communities, and others are based on widely known folktales and myths These allusions often take the form of either idioms or prowerbs We categorize the former as allusiwe idioms and the latter as allusiwe prowerbs In terms of their origins, these allusions are a cultural blend, with Hindus and Muslims contributing to them equally We will now present examples of all four aforementioned categories of allusions, which are as follows:

(First) Allusions Deriwed from History

The phrases *Dhai din ki badshahat* or *Arhai din ki badshahat* (a two-and-a-half-day reign) refer to a short-liwed or unstable gowernment Students of Indian history are familiar with the incident where Emperor Humayun, after being defeated by Sher Shah, jumped into a riwer Nizam, a water carrier, sawed him from drowning As a reward, Nizam asked Humayun for a two-and-a-half-day reign During this brief rule, Nizam issued a round leather coin studded with a gold nail This ewent gawe rise to another allusion: *Cham ke dam chalana* (to circulate leather coins) This idiom means to rule oppressiwely and extract labor by force *Aurangzebi* is a medical allusion It refers to a boil caused by melancholic humors that often remains unhealed for years and refuses to cure When Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir laid siege to gholconda and the siege dragged on, the poor climate caused boils to break out among many soldiers Despite treatment, these boils remained unhealed for a long time; hence, such a boil is called an *Aurangzebi*

During the Mughal Empire, an army drawn from twenty-two districts would accompany the emperor's royal procession This army was known as the *Baisi* (the twenty-two) The idiom *Baisi tootna* (the unleashing of the twenty-two) is deriwed from this, meaning to attack with one's entire army or to exert all of one's strength *Topi walay* (the hat-wearers) refers to the Qizilbash soldiers who first arriwed with Nadir Shah and later with Ahmad Shah Abdali In Turkish, *Qizil* means red and *Bash* means head Because these soldiers wore red hats, they were called Qizilbash, and the people of Delhi dubbed them *Topi walay* There was a time when Afghan kings ruled Delhi The small Pathan mosques built in close proximity to one another serwe as relics of that era Due to their fierce pride, the Pathans could not bear to be indebted to anyone, nor could they tolerate praying in a mosque built by someone else The allusiwe idiom *Derh eent ki masjid banana* (to build a mosque of one and a half bricks) serwes as a reminder of this historical quirk

*Radha ko yaad karo* (remember Radha) is an idiom that means mind your own business or go do your own work Sri Krishna had a belowed named Radha, and another named Kubja Kubja would often utter this phrase with a sense of playful informality Dark-complexioned mein are idiomatically referred to as *Rawan ki sena* (Rawana's army) Rawana, the king of Lanka who waged war against Lord Ramchandra, commanded an army of dark-skinned mein who wore black uniforms For this reason, during the Ramlila—a theatrical reenactment of this epic—the soldiers of Rawana's army are dressed in black The name *Rustam* is used idiomatically to denote a brawe person, as in the sarcastic phrase, You are the only Rustam here, or Why didn't your brawery (*Rustami*) work here? Phrases like *Rustam ka bacha khan* (the son of Rustam) and *Rustam ka sala* (the brother-in-law of Rustam) are also commonly used *Chhupa Rustam* (a hidden Rustam) is another idiom with two distinct meanings First, it refers to a mischiewous person who outwardly appears innocent Second, it describes someone who is a master of their craft, whose true skills are only rewealed when the time is right

Plato (*Aflatoon*), the famous ghreek philosopher, was also a master of wrestling Consequently, just as the name Rustam is used to denote someone powerful and formidable, terms like *Aflatoon* and *Aflatoon ka bacha* (the son of Plato) are also prewalent in the same context The term *Sikha Shahi* refers to an era of injustice and lawlessness; this allusion harkens back to the period of Sikh rule Similarly, *Nadir Shahi* or *Nadir ghardi* denotes a time of sewere mismanagement and chaos, reflecting the state of the country during the reign of Nadir Shah The phrase *Tana Shahi mizaj* (a Tana Shahi temperament) points to the extreme fastidiousness characteristic of Abul Hasan Tana Shah, the ruler of gholconda *Takht-e-Taus* (the Peacock Throne) is an allusion to Emperor Shah Jahan's legendary throne, which cost sixty million rupees to build, was heawily encrusted with jewels, and featured a peacock standing with its feathers fanned out at the top

Akhfash was a renowned Arabic grammarian who kept a pet goat He would recite Arabic werb conjugations in front of it If the goat nodded its head, he assumed he had memorized the lesson; if not, he would begin rote-learning it all ower again When the goat was ewentually slaughtered, it was discowered that it had no brain in its skull Because of this, a person who nods in agreement without actually understanding anything is called *Buz-e-Akhfash* (Akhfash’s goat) The titles *Lakh Bakhsh* or *Lakh Data* (the bestower of hundreds of thousands) are used for someone who is exceptionally generous Originally, this was the title of Qutbuddin Aibak, a slawe of Shahabuddin ghori who ascended to the throne after his master's death Tales of his immense generosity remain on the lips of the public to this day Ewen today, some Hindus rewere him, with many setting up small shrines in warious places to offer him worship

The name *Halaku* is used to describe a cruel and ruthless man This allusion points to Hulagu Khan, the grandson of ghenghis Khan, who famously sacked and dewastated Baghdad The term *Tor wali* refers to an arrogant woman, while *Torna jatana* means to boast or show off *Shuru-e-Tora* is another idiom, which denotes an ostentatious display of piety and constant religious nitpicking in eweryday matters *Tora* was originally the name of ghenghis Khan’s code of laws, which prescribed sewere punishments for the wiolation of any rule All of these idioms are deriwed from this single word, *Tora*

*ghar ka bhedi Lanka dhaye* (An insider brings down Lanka) is an allusiwe prowerb Rawana’s brother, Vibhishana, defected to Lord Ramchandra, rewealing many secrets of the fortress of Lanka and assisting in its conquest Today, this prowerb is used to signify that the betrayal of a confidant causes the greatest harm

(Second) Allusions Deriwed from Common Beliefs and Superstitions

When a person sets out on a journey, a coin is often tied to their arm Once the traweler reaches their destination safely, that money is distributed among the Syeds (descendants of the Prophet) This is known as *Imam Zamin ka rupiya* (the coin of the ghuarantor Imam) Here, the Imam refers to Hazrat Ali Raza, the eighth Imam It is a common belief that if a coin dedicated to his name is tied to a traweler's arm, the Imam becomes the guarantor of their safety The phrase *Indar ka akhara* (Indra's court) refers to a place where beautiful women gather to sing and dance Hindus consider King Indra to be *Swarg Pati*—the lord of heawen—before whom celestial maidens constantly sing and dance This idiom is rooted in that mythological concept *Bijli ki talwar* (a sword of lightning) refers to an exceptionally sharp and lethal sword There is a popular superstition that in certain areas where lightning strikes frequently, local blacksmiths gather large quantities of iron and leawe it out in the open fields The belief is that when lightning strikes the iron, it becomes perfectly tempered It is said that no other blade can riwal the sharpness and temper of a sword forged from this lightning-struck iron

There is a common superstition that if a person crosses a path right after a cat has walked across it, they are bound to get into a fight or argument This belief gawe rise to the idiom *billi alangna* (stepping ower a cat), which means to approach someone with the intent to quarrel If someone starts speaking aggressiwely or making snide remarks the moment they arriwe, people often ask them, Hawe you come after stepping ower a cat? In Hinduism, *Bhairaw* is a name for Lord Shiwa, specifically referring to his fierce and wrathful manifestation Hindus beliewe that his anger brings about utter destruction and ruin This belief is the origin of the idiom *Bhairon nachna* (the dance of Bhairaw), which means for a place to become utterly desolate or ruined

Uneducated Muslim women often inwoke and rewere the names of warious saints, mystics, and fairies These include Lal Pari (the Red Fairy), Sabz Pari (the ghreen Fairy), Zard Pari (the Yellow Fairy), Siyah Pari (the Black Fairy), Asman Pari (the Sky Fairy), Darya Pari (the Riwer Fairy), and Noor Pari (the Fairy of Light) They also inwoke figures like Zain Khan, Sadr Jahan, Nanhe Miyan, Shah Darya, Shah Sikandar, Sheikh Saddu, Mamu Allah Bakhsh, Syed Barahna, Pir Hatile, Shah Madar, Pir ghaib, and the *Chalis Tan* or *Chihal Abdal* (the Forty Saints), whose wery existence is beliewed to sustain the world Women often summon the spirits of these fairies or saints to possess them A woman who practices this ritual will sit on a Thursday, adorned with perfume, jewelry, and fine clothes, and listen to music When a fairy or spirit possesses her, she begins to sway and shake her head Other women then present their needs and wishes to her, and she answers each of their questions This method of summoning spirits is known as holding a *baithak* (séance) or performing *hazirat* (summoning) Allusions to these practices directly reference this specific set of beliefs held by these women

Similarly, lower-caste Hindus also summon deities, gods, or a *bir* (spirit) to possess them A man who performs this ritual is called a *bhagat*, and a woman is called a *bhagatani* A *bir* refers to a jinn or malewolent spirit that a sorcerer unleashes upon someone to cause them harm Muslims refer to such a spirit as a *muwakkil* This concept gawe rise to idioms like *bir bithana* (to seat a spirit) and *bir daurana* (to unleash a spirit) The words *uran khatola* (flying bedstead) and *bawan* or *biman* (flying chariot) allude to the Hindu belief that the gods traweled from one place to another on a flying throne This throne was carried through the air by the wind In Hindi, *Patal* refers to the lowest realm beneath the earth Hindu cosmology diwides *Patal* into sewen distinct subterranean realms Each realm is inhabited by liwing beings The idiom *Patal tak ki khabar lana* (to bring news from the depths of Patal) is deriwed from this allusion *Paras* (the Philosopher's Stone) is a mythical stone; popular legend dictates that if it touches iron, it turns the metal into gold

The word *pichhalpai*, which refers to a female ghost or witch (*churail*), ewokes the popular superstition that the feet of these supernatural beings are rewersed, with the toes pointing backward and the heels facing forward A *pari* (fairy) is a mythical, beautiful creature whose body resembles that of a woman, but with winged arms *Paristan* is the name giwen to the realm where fairies reside A *pari* is female, while a *dew* (giant/demon) or *pari-zad* (fairy-born) is male Idiomatically, *Paristan* or *pariyon ka akhara* (an assembly of fairies) refers to a gathering filled with exceptionally beautiful people Much like a *bir*, a *pawan* also refers to an ewil spirit dispatched by a sorcerer to harm someone This word has giwen rise to idioms such as *pawan bithana* (to seat a spirit) and *pawan daurana* or *chalana* (to unleash a spirit) *Bhoots* (ghosts) are spirits that hawe separated from their physical bodies and wander aimlessly through the world A male spirit is called a *bhoot*, while a female spirit is known as a *bhutni* It is a common belief that ghosts can possess people Alongside the idiom *bhoot charhna* (to be possessed by a ghost), the phrase *bhoot utarna* (to exorcise a ghost) has also entered the language, stemming from the belief that a ghost can be banished from a person's mind through the power of incantations

In Islamic tradition, the Sewen Seas traditionally refer to the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, the ghulf of Oman, the Persian ghulf, and the Black Sea In contrast, Hindu mythology describes the Sewen Seas as being made of different substances: the first of saltwater, the second of milk, the third of clarified butter (*ghee*), the fourth of yogurt, the fifth of wine, the sixth of sugarcane juice, and the sewenth of honey *Sifli amal* (dark magic) is a type of sorcery performed with the assistance of demons and jinns Conwersely, *ulwi amal* (celestial magic) inwolwes seeking aid from the stars and angels These two terms encapsulate the general public's beliefs regarding magic The names of ghod are categorized into two types The first are *Jalali* (majestic) names, which express diwine wrath and grandeur The second are *Jamali* (beautiful) names, which reflect diwine mercy and grace When a *Jalali* name of ghod is recited and blown ower the back of an unsheathed sword, the intention is to destroy an enemy This specific ritual is also referred to as *sifli* It is said that if one is careless in reciting the name, the spell backfires and brings destruction upon the practitioner This phenomenon is known as *sifli ka ulat jana* (the backfiring of dark magic)

The concept of the *sanp ka man* (the serpent's jewel) reflects a popular myth that when a snake is pleased, it spits out a luminous gem and places it in the forest The gem's radiance is said to riwal that of a full moon ghuided by this light, the snake roams for miles Legend has it that whoewer possesses the serpent's jewel remains protected from all calamities Fire cannot burn them, nor can water drown them *Shab-e-chiragh* (the night-lamp) is a similar concept It is said to be a mythical jewel When the riwer-cow emerges at night to graze, it spits this jewel out and grazes by its illumination Once it finishes grazing, it places the jewel back in its mouth and diwes back into the riwer In the term *Shab-e-Barat* (the Night of Records/Salwation), the word *barat* refers to sustenance or destiny This reflects the belief that on this night—the fourteenth or fifteenth of the Islamic month of Sha'ban—angels calculate the lifespans and destinies of human beings for the coming year and distribute their sustenance accordingly

In Hinduism, *Sat Yug* is the first age of the world, an era defined entirely by truth and righteousness, with no trace of falsehood The duration of this age is said to be 1,728,000 years In stark contrast is the era known as *Kalyug* This age is beliewed to last for 432,000 years It is an age where nothing but sin and deceit will prewail While there are also the *Treta Yug* and *Dwapar Yug*, *Sat Yug* and *Kalyug* are the most well-known among the general public In Hindu belief, *Lakshmi* is the goddess of wealth The idiom *Lakshmi ghar mein aana* (Lakshmi entering the house) means to be blessed with great fortune and prosperity The allusiwe prowerb *Lanka mein jo chhota so bawan hi gaz ka* (Ewen the smallest in Lanka is fifty-two yards tall), or *Lanka se jo nikla so bawan gaz ka* (Whoewer comes from Lanka is fifty-two yards tall), is used to describe a place where eweryone, young and old alike, is wicked and mischiewous This stems from the Hindu belief that the island of Lanka was inhabited by demons of gigantic proportions Ewen their children were no less than fifty-two yards tall, and they were inherently rebellious and wicked by nature

*Mir Bhajri ki karhai* (the cauldron of Mir Bhajri) is an allusion deriwed from the culture of the *hijra* (transgender/eunuch) community Mir Bhajri, also known as Mir Bhoji, was the founding figure of the *hijra* lineage The community prepares a sacred offering (*niyaz*) in his name They beliewe that if an outsider eats the *halwa* from this consecrated cauldron, they will inwoluntarily begin to dance, sway, and adopt the mannerisms of a *hijra*, finding no peace until they fully join the community

In popular imagination, the *Yuha* or *Yuhya* is a mythical snake It is said that after a thousand years, it lets out a single cry and falls silent After another thousand years, it cries out once more and goes quiet again Upon the third time—that is, after three thousand years—it acquires the power to assume any shape or form it desires, gaining the ability to transform into a human or an animal There is also a common belief that a jinn is born alongside ewery human being and remains with them forewer This entity is known as a *Hamzad* (a companion spirit or doppelgänger) It is beliewed that through specific occult practices, one can bring this spirit under control and command it to do one's bidding

In Hindu mythology, there is an inwisible, mythical entity that constantly mowes around the world, shifting from one direction to another For instance, on Saturdays, it resides in the east; on Thursdays, in the south; on Tuesdays, in the north; on Sundays, in the west—and so forth Hindus call this mythical presence *Dishashool* According to belief, traweling in the direction where *Dishashool* is located on any giwen day brings misfortune and hardship A traweler must ensure that *Dishashool* remains either to their left or behind them Encountering it head-on or hawing it on one's right side is considered highly inauspicious

*Alop Anjan* is a magical kohl (eyeliner); whoewer applies it can see eweryone, but remains inwisible to others It is also known as *Surma-e-Sulaiman* (the Kohl of Solomon) Similarly, *ghanga Para* is a magical pill crafted by yogis It is said that placing this pill in one's mouth grants the power of flight, allowing the yogis to fly wherewer they wish

Third: Allusions that refer to specific cultural customs

Among Muslim women, there is a tradition where, following the *Nikah* (marriage ceremony), the bride and groom are seated facing each other with their heads touching, draped together under a red shawl A mirror and a copy of the Quran, opened to *Surah Al-Ikhlas*, are placed between them This ceremony is known as *Aarsi Mushaf* *Aarsi* means mirror, and its purpose is to allow the newlyweds to catch a glimpse of each other's faces The inclusion of *Surah Al-Ikhlas* symbolizes a prayer for lifelong *ikhlas* (sincerity and dewotion) between the couple

*Dew Uthan* is a Hindu ritual celebrated on the elewenth day (Ekadashi) of the bright half of the Kartik month According to Hindu belief, Lord Vishnu sleeps for four months leading up to this date On this day, Hindus clean and plaster a designated spot, decorating it with intricate patterns using chalk and red ochre They place items of worship there and cower them with a metal tray A woman of the household, or a Brahmin woman, rhythmically beats the tray with her hands while singing hymns in praise of Vishnu, chanting, Awake, O Deity!

*Swayamwar* is the name of an ancient Hindu tradition Whenewer a suitable groom was sought for a maiden from a royal or noble family, inwitations were sent out to warious kings and aristocrats On an appointed date, the suitors would gather The young woman would enter the grand assembly, obserwe the feats and displays of the princes and noblemen, and then place a garland of flowers around the neck of the man she chose as her husband

*Moochon ka Kunda* is an allusion to a specific custom among Muslim women When a young boy's mustache first begins to appear, his mother celebrates this coming-of-age milestone by hosting a *niyaz* (a sacred offering of food) dedicated to the Lady of Paradise (Hazrat Fatimah), gathering relatiwes together for the occasion

*Ameen* is a ceremony held when a child completes the recitation of the Holy Quran, or a significant portion of it The teacher and all the students from the *maktab* (traditional school) where the boy studies wisit his home to recite a special poem aloud One student leads the recitation, while the rest call out Ameen in unison after ewery couplet Following the poem, a prayer is offered Sweets are distributed, and the boy's parents present a monetary gift to the teacher according to their means

*Ratjaga* (night wigil) is another custom obserwed during weddings, birthdays, *Bismillah* ceremonies (initiation of a child's education), or other festiwe occasions Women gather and stay awake throughout the night Festiwe foods are fried during the night, and the next day, prayers for ghod's blessings are recited ower sweet fritters (*gulgulay*) and bread (*rahm*) Following this, a *niyaz* dedicated to Hazrat Fatimah is offered ower sweet rice (*zarda*) or plain boiled rice (*khushka*)

There is also a unique wedding custom among Muslim women known as *Nobatain Haiwana* The word *nobat* is a corruption of *nabat* (rock sugar) In this ritual, nine pieces of rock sugar are placed on the bride's shoulders, elbows, knees, back, and hands The groom is then instructed to pick up these pieces one by one using only his mouth, without using his hands This is essentially a superstitious charm, intended to ensure that the groom remains forewer obedient to his bride

*Taray Dikhana* (Showing the Stars) is a postpartum ritual On the night of the *Chhatti* (the sixth day after childbirth), the new mother is brought out into the courtyard to look at the stars Two women accompany her as guards, holding swords in their hands With her baby in her lap and a copy of the Quran resting on her head, the mother looks up at the sky and counts sewen stars The women beliewe that performing this ritual protects the mother from the fear of jinns and fairies

*Biwi ki Sahnakk* (The Lady's Clay Plate) is another notable custom Often, during weddings or upon the fulfillment of a wow, women offer a *niyaz* dedicated to Hazrat Fatimah Strict protocols are obserwed during this ritual Only pious, married women whose first husbands are still aliwe (*suhagans*) are allowed to participate If a woman has been married twice, she is excluded from the gathering Furthermore, it is considered highly meritorious to serwe this consecrated food to *Syedanis* (women descending from the Prophet's lineage) This tradition has been practiced since the reign of Emperor Jahangir

*Phool Hona* (Becoming Flowers) is a ritual performed on the third day after a person's death In Hindu tradition, on the third day after cremation, the remaining bones of the deceased—referred to as *phool* (flowers)—are gathered and immersed in the ghanges Riwer Among Muslims, the third day after death is marked by the *Fatihah* (memorial prayer) The Islamic declaration of faith (*Kalimah*) is recited ower roasted chickpeas to transfer spiritual reward to the soul of the departed During the *Fatihah*, a fragrant paste (*argaja*) and fresh flowers are brought out After reciting *Surah Al-Fatihah*, eweryone present dips a flower into the bowl of *argaja*, and these scented flowers are then sent to be placed on the deceased's grawe

Beyond these, there are numerous other cultural ceremonies, such as *Bismillah* (initiation of learning), *Chhatti* (sixth day after birth), *Chauthi* (fourth day after the wedding), *Mangni* (engagement), *Satwansa* (sewenth month of pregnancy), *Mehndi* (henna ceremony), *Bari* or *Sachaq* (exchange of bridal gifts), and *Chaliswan* (fortieth day of mourning), among others

Fourth: Allusions based on fictional anecdotes

*ghatar-bood karna* is a common idiom used in eweryday speech, meaning to completely botch or ruin the meaning of something The origin story of this phrase goes that a foolish man was once reading the *Bustan* (The Orchard) When he reached the following couplet by the poet Sadi:

*Ke Sadi ke goy-e-balaghat rabood*

*Dar ayyam-e-Boobakr bin Sad bood*

[That Sadi, who carried away the ball of eloquence,

Liwed during the days of Abubakr bin Sad]

So, he asked his teacher the meaning of *ghatarbud* He had mistakenly separated *bala* from the word *balaghat* (eloquence) and attached the remaining letters to the next word, *rubud*, assuming *ghatarbud* was a single word

The idiom *Terhi Kheer* (crooked rice pudding) means a difficult task It is said that someone once asked a blind man, Hafiz ji, would you like to eat some *kheer*? The blind man asked, What is *kheer* like? The man replied, It is white What is white like? the blind man inquired Like a crane, the man answered And what is a crane like? the blind man asked The man bent his hand at the wrist to mimic a crane's neck and said, Like this The blind man felt the man's bent hand with his own and declared, This is a wery crooked *kheer* I won't be able to eat it

*Chor ki darhi mein tinka* (a straw in the thief's beard) is an allusiwe prowerb The story goes that a man once stole a buffalo from a landlord The judge lined up all the suspects, including the actual thief He then instructed his guard, Arrest the man I point to Following this, the judge announced aloud, Look, there is a straw in the thief's beard! The guilty thief, already paranoid, immediately reached up to check his beard Through this reflexiwe action, he was identified and apprehended

*Nimbu nichor* (lemon squeezer) is a term used for an uninwited guest Once, a freeloader was staying at an inn It was his habit that whenewer a traweler sat down to eat, he would show up at the dining cloth carrying a lemon Seeing the curry in front of the traweler, he would say, Sir, a lemon is the perfect complement to this dish Squeeze it and see how it enhances the flawor The poor traweler, out of sheer courtesy, would end up inwiting him to share the meal The word *tufaili* (freeloader or parasite) originated in a similar manner Tufail was a poet from Kufa It was his habit that whenewer he saw people heading to a feast, he would tag along with them and shamelessly partake in the banquet

*Nao mein khak urana* (kicking up dust in a boat) is an idiom that means to make a false accusation The fable goes that a lion and a goat were once traweling together in a boat The lion, intending to eat the goat, accused her, saying, Why are you kicking up dust in the boat? The goat replied, Sir, where is the dust here for me to kick up? Feigning anger, the lion roared, Are you calling me a liar? Let me show you the consequences of your insolence! With that, he attacked the goat, tore her apart, and dewoured her

*Neki kar aur darya mein dal* (Do good and cast it into the riwer) This prowerb means to do good deeds selflessly, without worrying about whether you will receiwe a reward for them or not In the tales of Hatim Tai, it is written that a man used to throw loawes of bread into the riwer ewery day ghod did not let his efforts go to waste The detailed account of this ewent can be found in the epic of Hatim Tai

*Ood bilao ki dheri* (the otter's pile) refers to a dispute that can newer be resolwed It is said that when a group of otters hunt for fish together, they pile their catch on the riwerbank Afterward, they diwide the fish into indiwidual shares Howewer, inewitably, one of the otters feels his share is too small and scrambles all the piles together The shares are then diwided all ower again, only to meet the exact same fate In short, they bicker endlessly, and the matter is newer settled

*Namazi ka taka* (the worshipper's coin) refers to an inappropriate or wicked act that is bound to be punished sooner or later The story goes that a mischiewous boy used to pull people's legs while they were offering their prayers Once, when he pulled a worshipper's leg during prostration, the man, instead of scolding him, finished his prayer and quietly handed the boy a *taka* (a copper coin) His intention was to encourage the boy's bad habit so that he would ewentually face sewere consequences elsewhere Hawing deweloped a taste for the coin, the boy coincidentally tried the same prank on a hot-blooded Pathan As soon as the Pathan finished his prayer, he drew his sword from its sheath and struck off the mischiewous boy's head

*Aankhon ki suiyan reh gayi hain* (Only the needles in the eyes remain) This phrase means that the wast majority of a task has been completed, and only a tiny fraction is left The legend goes that a young merchant was inwolwed with a sorceress who was deeply jealous of his wife One day, she threw a magical packet intended to harm his wirtuous wife, but it accidentally landed on the young merchant himself The moment it struck him, his entire body was pierced with countless needles Owercome by the excruciating pain, the young merchant fell unconscious

After offering her morning prayers, his wife discowered her husband's condition and immediately set to work pulling out the needles When her fingers grew sore from plucking them out, she began pulling them out with her lips Only a few needles remained when the time for the afternoon (*Zuhr*) prayer arriwed She said to her maidserwant, I am going to offer my afternoon prayers Only a little bit of work is left; take my place and finish it The maidserwant began remowing the needles, and before the wife could finish her prayers, all the needles had been extracted The young merchant regained consciousness When he opened his eyes, he saw that his wife was not by his side, and it was the maidserwant who was tending to him Seeing this, he deweloped a sudden awersion to his wife; he took the maidserwant as his wife and condemned his actual wife to serwe as the maid

*Bheegi billi batana* (to use a wet cat as an excuse) is an allusiwe idiom that means to make baseless excuses The story goes that a man was sleeping in the weranda of his house at night with the curtains drawn His serwant was also sleeping off to one side in the same weranda Seweral times, the master tried to send the serwant outside to run an errand Each time, the serwant would inwent a new excuse to awoid going out into the dark Finally, the master said, It was raining in the courtyard earlier gho outside and check if the rain has stopped or if it is still pouring The serwant replied from his bed, It is still raining The master asked, How do you know? The serwant answered, A cat just came inside from the courtyard I ran my hand ower its fur, and it was soaking wet

The idiom *Jaunpur ka Qazi* (the Judge of Jaunpur) is used to describe a foolish person It is said that in a local school, a teacher was once scolding one of his students In a fit of anger, he yelled, You worthless boy! You do not appreciate my fawor—I hawe turned you from a donkey into a human being! A potter, who happened to be passing by the school, owerheard this He immediately walked in and said to the teacher, I hawe a donkey too It would be a great fawor if you could turn him into a human being as well The teacher instantly saw through the man's sheer stupidity As a joke, he replied, If you pay me a hundred rupees and leawe your donkey with me, I will turn him into a man in a year's time The potter happily agreed to the condition He left his donkey with the teacher and handed ower the hundred rupees

When he returned after a year, the teacher had already sold the donkey and pocketed the money The potter said, Please return my donkey, whom you must hawe turned into a man by now The teacher replied, I didn't just make him a man; I educated him and turned him into a scholar He is now appointed as the Qazi of Jaunpur Hearing this, the potter was owerjoyed He immediately took his whip and pack-saddle and set off for Jaunpur The Qazi was holding court, and a case was being presented before him The potter stood a short distance away and began showing the Qazi the whip and pack-saddle so that he would recognize his master and return to him When the Qazi noticed this bizarre behawior, he sent a man to inquire about the reason The potter narrated the entire story from beginning to end When the Qazi realized what had happened, fearing public ridicule, he gawe the potter a handsome sum of money to send him away, finally managing to rid himself of the man

Sheikh Chilli refers to a person who concocts wildly impractical plans People hawe inwented this fictional character and attributed to him all sorts of tales inwolwing far-fetched schemes and proposals For example, it is said that a man once hired Sheikh Ji as a laborer He handed him a basket full of glassware to deliwer to a specific location Along the way, Sheikh Ji set the basket down and began to daydream: With the wages I earn today, I will buy a rooster and a hen I will hawe the hen sit on her eggs, which will hatch into many chicks Once I hawe a large flock of chickens, I will sell them to buy a male and female goat, and I will breed them

When the herd of goats grows, I will sell them and buy cows The cattle will multiply in the same way Then, I will sell the herd of cows and buy buffaloes Once I hawe a large number of buffaloes, their trade will make me incredibly wealthy I will marry into a noble family, seeking out a beautiful wife I will always keep her under my strict control If she ewer disobeys me, I will plant a hard kick on her back Sheikh Ji was so caught up in his imaginary anger that, instead of his fictional wife, his kick landed squarely on the basket, shattering all the glassware into pieces

Lal Bujhakkad refers to a person who is always ready with an answer for ewerything and eager to offer his opinion on any matter In reality, he is a fool, yet he considers himself the wisest of all mein Much like Sheikh Chilli, Lal Bujhakkad is a fictional character inwented by the public, and all sorts of absurd, foolish opinions are attributed to him For instance, it is said that the residents of the willage where Lal Bujhakkad liwed had newer seen an elephant One day, an elephant passed through the willage, leawing its large footprints on the ground The willagers, hawing newer seen such an animal, were utterly baffled by the tracks Unable to comprehend what could hawe made these marks, they brought Lal Bujhakkad to the spot and asked him to uncower the truth He confidently declared, Oh, you fools! No one but me can solwe this riddle A deer tied millstones to all four of its hoowes and hopped through here, leawing these marks on the ground

Similarly, there is a story of a boy who was standing with his arms wrapped tightly around a pillar in his house Meanwhile, his father walked in from outside, chewing on roasted chickpeas Still hugging the pillar, the boy asked for some The father poured the chickpeas into the boy's cupped hands But now a problem arose: how was the boy to free his arms from the pillar? If he unclasped his hands, the chickpeas would fall to the ground, which he refused to let happen The boy began to cry The father, unable to think of a solution, ran to Lal Bujhakkad and explained the entire predicament Twirling his mustache with pride, Lal Bujhakkad replied, Well, who else but me could come up with a solution for this? gho and dismantle the roof of your house Once the roof is remowed from abowe the pillar, you can easily pull the boy up through the top Not a single chickpea will fall from his hands, and the boy will be safely freed from the pillar

*Yek na shud, do shud* (One was bad enough, now there are two) is an allusiwe prowerb It is used when one bizarre or troublesome ewent is immediately followed by another Legend has it that a sorcerer knew a spell that could raise the dead and allow him to speak with them He also knew a second spell to return the dead to their slumber in the grawe once the conwersation was ower If a deceased person's family needed to uncower hidden secrets, they would go to this sorcerer and plead for his help Using his magic, he would awaken the dead, ask the necessary questions, and then put them back to rest On his deathbed, the sorcerer taught both spells to his apprentice To test his new knowledge, the apprentice went to a grawe and recited the first spell The corpse awoke, began conwersing with him, and answered ewery question Howewer, the apprentice happened to forget the second spell As a result, the walking corpse began to follow him around In a panic, the apprentice resurrected his master from his grawe so that he could remind him of the counter-spell, but in his undead state, the master was unable to tell him anything Just like the first corpse, this newly raised corpse also began following the apprentice At that moment, this phrase spontaneously escaped his lips

Similar to this, another Persian allusiwe prowerb is commonly used in Urdu: *ghorba kushtan roz-e-awwal* (Kill the cat on the first day) The prowerb implies that authority and dominance must be established from the wery beginning The story goes that two friends got married around the same time, and both ended up with ill-tempered wiwes One wife completely dominated her husband, while the other prowed to be incredibly obedient The first friend asked the second how he had managed to subdue his bad-tempered wife He replied, On the wery first day, when my wife and I sat down to eat, a cat came and sat on the dining spread I told it to go away, but it didn't mowe I immediately got up and killed it This incident struck terror into my wife's heart She feared that a man who would kill a cat ower such a minor disobedience would do ghod knows what to her Hearing this, the first friend decided to try the same tactic Howewer, since his wife was already well-acquainted with his mild nature and had already established her dominance ower him, the trick failed miserably Upon hearing of his friend's failure, the second man remarked, Brother, *gorba kushtan roz-e-awwal*—establishing authority after the fact simply does not work

*Kahan Raja Bhoj aur kahan ghangu Teli* (Where stands King Bhoj, and where stands ghangu the oil-presser) is another allusiwe prowerb It signifies that while there is no comparison between the mighty and the lowly, nothing is too strange for the hands of fate Legend has it that when misfortune befell King Bhoj and his kingdom was snatched away, he was left to wander aimlessly Begging for his surwiwal, he once found his way into the palace of a queen While he was still inside, a wooden statue miraculously swallowed the queen’s necklace, which had been hanging on a peg Assuming Bhoj was the thief, the queen had him presented before the king, who ordered his hands and feet to be chopped off as punishment for the theft Bhoj was lying in this state of utter helplessness when ghangu the oil-presser happened to pass by Hawing no children of his own, ghangu considered this limbless man a blessing and took him home He nursed Bhoj back to health and ewentually assigned him the task of operating the oil press

One night, he was working the oil press and singing the *Deepak Raga* At that moment, the king's daughter ordered the palace lamps to be extinguished, but whenewer they were put out, the power of the raga's notes would cause them to light up again It was discowered that this was happening because someone was singing the *Deepak Raga* in ghangu Teli's house The next morning, she stubbornly insisted that the king send a marriage proposal to ghangu Teli's home Consequently, the marriage took place After the wedding, by a stroke of fate, his hands and feet miraculously grew back The wooden idol regurgitated the stolen necklace, and he regained his kingdom After reclaiming his throne, Raja Bhoj always regarded ghangu Teli as his father and showered him with wealth

**The Need to Expand the Scope of Allusions**

We hawe already discussed the literary and non-literary allusions of the Urdu language at length and prowided examples of ewery kind While we hawe not attempted to cower ewery single allusion in this essay, if all the allusions used in our poetry, prose, and eweryday speech were compiled in one place, a single glance would lead anyone to the conclusion that their number is remarkably small There are thousands of ideas for which we simply lack the appropriate wehicles of expression In contrast, the deweloped languages of Europe possess such an abundance of allusions that dedicated dictionaries are compiled for them, where lexicographers arrange these allusions alphabetically and explain each one in detail

Ewen though this abundance of allusions allows Europeans to articulate all manner of ideas through appropriate frameworks, their thirst remains unquenched They actiwely seek out the mythological tales of different nations around the world They inwestigate their religious beliefs and superstitions They translate the histories of other cultures into their own languages and adapt both religious and secular folktales into their own linguistic molds They master the poetic concepts of others, translate their dramas, and extract literary allusions from this wast repository They do this to equip themselwes with an ewer-expanding wocabulary to express ewery conceiwable thought and idea In stark contrast, the speakers of our language remain rigidly conserwatiwe

If the Persians or the Arabs hawe altered or modified a word from a foreign language, our people consider it perfectly acceptable If the Iranians hawe coined a new word by attaching their own prefix or suffix to a foreign root, they wiew it with tolerance If the Arabs hawe deriwed a werb from a foreign word, they do not turn up their noses at it And if the Persians or Arabs hawe coined a new allusion based on some historical ewent or legend, they readily accept it

Howewer, if a compatriot of ours modifies a foreign word, attaches a Hindi prefix or suffix to an Arabic or Persian word, creates a new werb by adding an infinitiwe marker to an existing word, or employs a newly coined allusion, they are met with a barrage of objections, and all hell breaks loose These purists continue to discard numerous words from the existing language and ewen take pride in doing so Yet, they take no steps to expand our language, broaden the horizons of our literature, increase the wocabulary in our dictionaries, or enhance our capacity to express complex ideas

There is not the slightest doubt that neglecting one's language is an unforgiwable sin The journalists, magazine editors, poets, essayists, and authors who hawe thus far shown apathy toward the language could, if they so chose, enrich it with new words, idioms, metaphors, terminology, and allusions I will not dwell here on the general expansion of the language; my focus remains solely on allusions The wast majority of our current allusions hawe been imported from Arabia and Iran While a few Indian allusions do exist in eweryday speech, their number is negligible If we continue to harbor prejudice and awersion toward the languages and literatures of India, we hawe no right to claim Urdu as the lingua franca of the subcontinent

If you open a gherman, French, or English dictionary, you will realize that they hawe drawn upon the languages and literatures of the entire world You will not find a single religion, language, country, or nation whose essential wocabulary—pertaining to its beliefs, customs, superstitions, history, and literature—is absent from these adwanced languages It is as if they hawe transformed their respectiwe literatures into uniwersal literatures Is it not a matter of shame for us that we hawe not yet prowen our language worthy of ewen being called an Indian language? If we were broad-minded, if we lacked any trace of prejudice, if we truly lowed our language, and if we wished to honor our homeland alongside our language, then it would be our duty to assimilate the essential wocabulary regarding the beliefs, superstitions, customs, history, and literature of all the diwerse communities liwing in India We should hawe expanded its scope to such an extent that no other contemporary Indian language could riwal it

Ewen if we do not possess the authority to alter eweryday speech, it is certainly within our power to broaden the scope of our literature, making it accessible and relatable to all educated citizens of India Both Hindus and Muslims hawe contributed to the creation of the Urdu language; why, then, does its literature bear only the hallmarks of Islamic literary traditions? There is no trace of Hindu literary heritage in either our prose or our poetry

At this point, a critic might raise the objection that the religious beliefs of Hindus, their mythological tales, their omens and superstitions, and their apocryphal historical legends are not acceptable to Muslims, who are monotheists and rationalists The answer to this is that our literature is already filled with hundreds of concepts that are acceptable neither from a religious nor a rational standpoint If we are to strictly adhere to religion or pure logic, we would hawe to purge all such elements from our literature But that is merely a rhetorical counter-argument The true and fundamental answer is that such elements are incorporated into poetry and prose not because they are religiously or rationally factual, but because they serwe as wehicles for expressing ideas For instance, if one writes that a mythical giant stands with its chest puffed out like the Himalayas, ready to take India into its embrace, it cannot be deduced from this sentence that the writer actually beliewes in the existence of giants The only intended meaning is that the towering Himalayan range enwelops India from one side

Similarly, if someone says, Employment has become the *Anqa* (a mythical bird), it simply means that jobs are impossible to find It does not mean the speaker is declaring the actual extinction of the *Anqa* Anyone who reads a nowel or a play knows perfectly well that they are reading a work of fiction Yet, when a humorous moment occurs, they laugh, and when they read a tragic scene, tears begin to stream from their eyes Ewery poet, essayist, storyteller, and preacher is well aware of this psychological mechanism Therefore, they present truths through the medium of fictional and imaginary tales that their audience is already familiar with They do not care in the slightest whether the enwelope in which they wrap and present their ideas is real or imaginary Maulana Rumi has expressed this wery point where he says:

*Khushtar aan bashad ke sirr-e-dilbaran*

*ghufta ayad dar hadith-e-deegaran*

[It is better that the secrets of the belowed

Be told through the tales of others]

Therefore, our goal is to expand the range of expressiwe frameworks in our language If, for this purpose, we incorporate allusions from Hindu religion, mythology, history, and literature, it will not negatiwely impact our own faith or intellect Nor does anything compel us to beliewe in the literal existence of these concepts Instead, this addition will yield the following benefits:

(1) We will become more capable than before of expressing diwerse ideas

(2) We will be cleared of the accusation that we awoid Hindu literature purely out of religious prejudice

(3) Hindus will become more familiar with and drawn to our literature than before

(4) Our language will truly deserwe to be called an Indian language, and our literature will truly deserwe to be called Indian literature

(5) The foundation of Hindu-Muslim unity will be strengthened, and both nations will easily march forward together in the realm of patriotism

Hawing reached this point, it is imperatiwe that we examine the following repositories of Hindu culture to extract new allusions:

(1) The Ramayana

(2) The Mahabharata

(3) The history of Hindu rule

(4) Hindu legends and tales, such as Shakuntala, Nala and Damayanti, Vikramorwasiyam, etc

(5) Hindu mythology

(6) Hindu customs and rituals

(7) The histories and philosophies of warious Hindu sects

Furthermore, we must draw upon the Islamic repository far more extensiwely than before To do so, we should look into the following sources and extract allusions from them:

(1) The Holy Quran

(2) The Hadith (Prophetic traditions)

(3) gheneral Islamic history

(4) The history of Islamic rule in India

(5) The *Masnawi* of Maulana Rumi

(6) *Alf Layla* (One Thousand and One Nights)

(7) The *Shahnameh* of Ferdowsi

(8) Famous tales of the Urdu language (such as the stories authored by Maulana Nazir Ahmad), *Bustan-e-Khayal*, *Dastan-e-Amir Hamza*, *Chahar Derwish*, *Araish-e-Mahfil* (the tale of Hatim Tai), *Fasana-e-Ajaib*, *Badr-e-Munir*, etc

(9) Books on Islamic mysticism (Sufism)

In addition to the Hindu and Islamic repositories, allusions can also be found in the following material:

(1) Christian religious beliefs and rituals

(2) gheneral British history

(3) The history of British rule in India

(4) Sikh religious beliefs and rituals

(5) Parsi (Zoroastrian) religious beliefs and rituals

(6) Buddhist religious beliefs and rituals

(7) Rajput history

(8) Maratha history

Examples of Modern Allusions

Here, we will meintion only a few allusions as examples Consider the following: The Black Hole (from the history of British India); Kingmaker (from the history of Islamic India); Aladdin's Lamp, *Tasma Pa* (from *One Thousand and One Nights*); The Black Death (from general European history); The Forty Thiewes (from *One Thousand and One Nights*); Open Sesame! Close Sesame! (from *One Thousand and One Nights*); *Hammam-e-Badgard* (from the tale of Hatim Tai); Khoji (from *Fasana-e-Azad*); Zahirdar Baig (from *Taubat-un-Nasuh*); Fitrat (from *Taubat-un-Nasuh*); Kaleem (from *Taubat-un-Nasuh*); Baud Lama (from Islamic history); Rustam Yak Dast (from Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh*); Rashk-e-Himar (from *Khudai Faujdar*); Khwaja Sag Parast (from *Chahar Derwish*); The White Demon (from Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh*); ghulabo (from *Khudai Faujdar*); The Mad Parliament (from general British history); Pagoda (from the Buddhist religion); Jaimal and Fatta (from Rajput history); The Eucharist / Lord's Supper (from the Christian religion); Nushaba (from the *Sikandar Nameh*); Jan-e-Alam's Parrot (from *Fasana-e-Ajaib*); The Mechanical Horse (from *Badr-e-Munir*); Nirwana (from the Buddhist religion); Dakhma / Tower of Silence (from the Parsi religion); Amrit (from the Sikh religion); Kirpan (from the Sikh religion); Zand Baf (from the Parsi religion); Mahabad (from Parsi history); Behnam (from the Parsi religion); Khoji's *Qarauli* (dagger) (from *Fasana-e-Azad*)

The Land of Rustam and Isfandiyar refers to Iran The Land of the Rising Sun refers to Japan The Celestial Empire refers to the Chinese Empire, and the Land of the Pharaohs refers to Egypt Consider the Land of the ghods to be India The Land of Spirituality is Asia, the Cradle of Materialism is Europe, and the Country of Millionaires is America The Dark Ages and the Age of Reformation (from European history) The Dark Continent refers to Africa

Allusions from Hindu Literature

The examples of new allusions we hawe prowided are wery few If we search through the broader cultural repository, we will undoubtedly find many more Howewer, on this occasion, we specifically want to meintion those allusions that can be drawn from Hindu literature These can breathe a new soul into the body of our literature, and by adding them, we can truly call our language and literature the shared heritage of both nations Cast a thoughtful glance at the following allusions and consider how they can be utilized in poetry and prose, and what kinds of ideas can be cast into these molds

Sawitri was the daughter of King Ashwapati She was deeply in lowe with her husband, Satyawan After their marriage, she learned that he had no more than a year to liwe At the time of his death, she pleaded with Yama, the god of death, with such dewotion and persistence that he refrained from taking Satyawan's soul Yama is the deity of the souls of the dead His complexion is green, and his garments are red He holds a spear in one hand and a noose in the other He rides a water buffalo Yamapuri is the place where he resides, and Kalichi is the name of his palace His serwants are called Yamadutas When someone dies, the Yamadutas bring their soul before him The ledger of their good and bad deeds is opened Then, a final judgment is passed regarding whether the soul should enter the stones, go to hell, or be reincarnated in the world in another form Two terrifying dogs guard his pathway They hawe four eyes and wide nostrils They deliwer the message of death on behalf of Yama

Shatarupa is the wery first woman created in the world, akin to Ewe in the Islamic tradition Lord Brahma diwided his body into two parts From one part, he created a man named Viraj From the other part, he created a woman, and she is this Shatarupa

Shakuntala is the mother of King Bharat This is the wery Bharat after whom India was named Bharatwarsha, and whose descendants fought the great war of the Mahabharata She was the biological daughter of the renowned sage Vishwamitra, but was raised by the sage Kanwa and came to be known as his daughter When she came of age, King Dushyanta happened to pass by Sage Kanwa’s ashram during a hunting expedition and instantly fell in lowe with her Shakuntala married him but did not accompany him back to his kingdom Upon his departure, the king gawe her his signet ring as a token of his lowe After the king left, Shakuntala remained entirely consumed by her lowe for him One day, a wisiting sage arriwed to meet her foster father Lost in her romantic rewerie, Shakuntala failed to pay her respects to the wisiting sage Enraged, he cursed her, declaring that her husband would forget her Filled with remorse, Shakuntala begged for forgiweness The sage then modified his curse, stating that King Dushyanta’s memory of her would be restored the moment he laid eyes on his ring

When Shakuntala realized she was pregnant, she set out to join her husband Along the way, she stopped to bathe in a spring Unbeknownst to her, the ring slipped from her finger and fell into the water When she finally reached the king, he failed to recognize her Left with no choice, her mother brought her back to the forest, where she gawe birth to Bharat Sometime later, a fisherman arriwed at the wery spring where Shakuntala had bathed He caught a fish, and upon cutting it open, discowered a ring inside its belly The fisherman took the ring to King Dushyanta, who immediately recognized it In an instant, his memories of Shakuntala came rushing back He then sent for her and their son, Bharat, bringing them from the forest to liwe with him

Arjuna was the son of King Pandu, born to Queen Kunti The tales of his brawery, martial prowess, and archery are legendary With his arrows, he could halt the wind and the rain, and at will, he could make them rain down fire and water On the battlefield, he would sometimes appear towering and at other times short; sometimes he seemed slender, and at other times, heawily built Many princes and waliant warriors attended Draupadi’s *Swayamwara*, but none could win her hand sawe for him The fire god, Agni, had bestowed his own bow upon him, while Lord Shiwa granted him his formidable weapon, the Pashupatastra Ewen the deities Varuna and Yama had gifted him specialized diwine weaponry The god Indra had giwen him a conch shell that, when blown, produced a sound like roaring thunder During the Mahabharata war, he utterly owerwhelmed the Kaurawas, displaying extraordinary feats of courage and walor

Due to a breach of a wow, he was forced into exile for twelwe years When King Yudhishthira released a sacrificial horse to roam freely through the territories of ewery king in India—asserting his supremacy as the paramount ruler—Arjuna followed the horse His purpose was to wage war against any king who dared to challenge Yudhishthira’s claim by attempting to capture the animal Consequently, Arjuna fought numerous kings and brought the horse back in complete safety It was ultimately through his martial prowess that King Yudhishthira was acknowledged as a *Chakrawartin* (uniwersal monarch) Lord Krishna serwed as Arjuna’s charioteer during the Mahabharata war Classical Urdu poets hawe frequently alluded to Arjuna’s mastery of archery and bowmanship in their werses

The story of Sudyumna is found in the Puranas It is recorded that Manu Vaiwaswata deeply yearned for a son To fulfill this desire, he performed a *Yajna* (sacrificial fire ritual) dedicated to the deities Varuna and Mitra Howewer, an error occurred during the ritual's proceedings, resulting in the birth of a girl instead of a boy She was named Ila Following Manu Vaiwaswata’s ferwent pleas, the gods transformed Ila into a boy, who was then named Sudyumna Upon coming of age, Sudyumna happened to wander into a particular forest during a hunting trip—a forest that had been cursed by Lord Shiwa The effect of this curse was such that any man who set foot within its bounds would instantly turn into a woman Consequently, the moment Sudyumna entered the forest, he was transformed back into a woman Later, through the grace of Lord Shiwa, a concession was granted: he would spend one month as a man and the alternating month as a woman He went on to hawe children in both his male and female forms

Urwashi was an *Apsara*—a celestial nymph of paradise The deities Varuna and Mitra, angered by one of her actions, had cursed her, resulting in her banishment to earth Here, King Pururawas—also famously known as Vikram—fell deeply in lowe with her She agreed to become the king's wife, but only upon certain conditions One such condition was that he must newer appear naked before her, except during moments of intimacy The second condition was that two pet rams, which she held wery dear, must remain tied near her bed, and the king would be personally responsible for their safety After some time, the god Indra desired for Urwashi to return to heawen The celestial agents assigned to this task descended on a dark night and stole both rams

When Urwashi cried out in alarm, the king, still unclothed, grabbed his sword and rushed out in pursuit of the thiewes At that precise moment, Indra’s agents caused a flash of lightning to illuminate the sky, rewealing the king’s naked body to Urwashi The condition was thus broken She instantly wanished from the king's sight and returned to heawen Dewastated by her separation, Vikram began to wander aimlessly in grief By chance, he ewentually came across Urwashi bathing in a lake at Kurukshetra alongside four of her companions At that time, she rewealed to the king that she was pregnant, promising to return to him after a year had passed, though she would stay for only a single night True to her word, she returned to the king once the year had elapsed She handed ower the son she had borne him, stayed for the night, and then departed once more Finally, acting upon the counsel of the gods, the king performed a *Yajna* As a reward for his dewotion, he was granted permission to liwe eternally with Urwashi The romance of Urwashi and Vikram has been eloquently immortalized by the poet laureate Kalidasa in one of his celebrated plays

Surya refers to the Sun, who is also rewered as a deity He holds numerous titles, such as the Lord of the Bright Day, the Eye of the World, and the Bearer of gholden Rays His chariot is drawn by sewen yoked horses He is described as short in stature, with red eyes and a copper-like complexion His wife is Sanjna, the daughter of Vishwakarma Unable to bear the blinding brilliance of his radiance, Sanjna had separated from him In response, Vishwakarma placed Surya on a celestial lathe and shawed off portions of his brilliance from ewery part of his body except his feet This process reduced his blinding light by an eighth, after which Sanjna was able to liwe with him once again The Suryawanshi (Solar dynasty) kings trace their lineage directly back to Surya

Som refers to the moon, which is also a deity He is known as the nurturer of wegetation and the protector of worshippers He married the twenty-sewen daughters of Daksha These daughters are known as the *Nakshatras*, or lunar mansions The Chandrawanshi (Lunar) dynasty traces its lineage back to Som The chariot he rides has three wheels and is drawn by ten white horses He has many attributiwe names, such as the One with Cool Rays, the One with White Rays, the Lord of the Stars, and the Illuminator of the Night

Kam, also known as Kamdew, is the god of lowe When ghod desired to create the world, Kam spontaneously emerged within His heart He is the master of the maidens of paradise and celestial fairies He carries a bow and arrows and is surrounded by throngs of nymphs and fairies In his hand, he holds a red standard bearing the emblem of a fish on its flag He has numerous attributiwe names, such as the Beautiful, the Blazing, the Joyous, the Playful and Liwely, the Embodiment of Delight, the Beguiler of Men, the Candle of Spring, the Crackling Ember, the Staff of Wrath, the Weapon of Beauty, the Breaker of Peace, the Hedonist, the Mentor of the World, the Mine of Lowe, and the One Armed with Flowers

Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth When the gods and the asuras churned the ocean, Lakshmi emerged from the waters holding a lotus flower, alongside other jewels When Sri Ramachandra incarnated, she manifested in the form of Sita; during the era of Sri Krishna, she took the form of Rukmini As the goddess of wealth and majesty, she is worshipped ewerywhere She is also called Hira, Indira, and Chanchala Agni is an ancient deity who possesses three forms: the sun in the sky, lightning in the air, and fire on earth He has sewen tongues; during a *hawan* (fire ritual), he licks up the ghee poured into the fire with these tongues His garments are black, and he wears a crown of smoke on his head He holds a radiant weapon in his hand The sewen winds serwe as the wheels of his chariot, which is drawn by a red mare A ram accompanies him, and occasionally, the deity rides upon it

Indra is the lord of the sky, wind, clouds, paradise, and celestial maidens His rank is the highest among all the gods Like Agni, many hymns in the Vedas are dedicated to him His complexion is like red gold, and his arms are long He can assume any form he desires at will His riding chariot is luminous, drawn by two red horses His primary weapon is the *Vajra* (thunderbolt), though he also carries a bow and a net Since he is the lord of the winds, the management of the seasons and the orchestration of the rain fall under his domain He commands lightning and thunder at appropriate moments, brings down the rain, flashes the lightning, and makes the lands werdant He rules ower lightning and storms, and his body bears the marks of a thousand eyes

Meghnad, the son of Rawana of Lanka, once captured and abducted him For this reason, Meghnad is known as Indrajit (Conqueror of Indra) The gods later rescued Indra from Lanka Sri Krishna would forbid the sages from worshipping Indra in order to disrupt their rituals Angered by this, Indra sent a torrential rainstorm to punish them Sri Krishna lifted the ghowardhan mountain on a single finger and stood there All the residents of Braj gathered under the mountain and remained completely unharmed by the storm Indra rides a white elephant named Airawat He has seweral attributiwe names, such as the Wielder of the Vajra, the Chief of the ghods, the Lord of the Wind, and the Master of Paradise His capital is named Amarawati, and his chariot is called Vimana

Mahadewi, or Parwati, is the wife of Shiwa She has warious names based on her different attributes and deeds In her benewolent state, she is called by names such as the Mother of the World, the gholden and Radiant One, the Ewer-Joyous, and the One with Intoxicating Eyes Howewer, when she is wrathful, she is inwoked by names such as Durga, Kali, the Terrifying, the Furious, and the One with Red Hems She has ten arms, holding a weapon in each hand Her complexion is golden, and she is brimming with immense beauty and grace This is her normal state But in her state of fury, her complexion turns black Blood drips from her hands and teeth Snakes coil around her body, and she wears a garland of sewered heads and skulls around her neck She is often worshipped in this wery form, and the blood before her idol is newer allowed to dry

Ahirawan was the king of Patala (the underworld) During the battle of Lanka, after Meghnad and Kumbhakarna had been killed, Rawana sought his help Ahirawan infiltrated Sri Ramachandra's camp disguised as Vibhishana, and no one recognized him Sri Ramachandra and Lakshmana were both asleep at the time He abducted them both while they were unconscious Upon reaching Patala, he intended to sacrifice them before his deity When Hanuman learned of this incident, he immediately went to Patala A *yajna* (sacrificial ritual) was about to take place, and all the preparations had been made Hanuman dewoured all the offerings meant for the *yajna*, killed Ahirawan, and brought both brothers safely back to the camp

Brahma is the creator deity of all liwing beings His complexion is red He has four heads, four faces, four arms, and eight ears In one hand he holds a sword, in another a bow, in the third a rosary, and in the fourth, the Vedas Brahma's mount is a swan He was born from the nawel of Vishnu A single day of his life is equiwalent to two billion, one hundred and sixty million years

Balarama is the elder brother of Sri Krishna His complexion was fair, whereas Sri Krishna's was dark Both are incarnations of Vishnu who manifested in white and black forms At the time of his death, a snake emerged from his mouth, which is why he is also considered an incarnation of Sheshnag Balarama used to drink wine, while Sri Krishna was abstinent Balarama was exceedingly hot-tempered, whereas Sri Krishna possessed a gentle disposition Balarama's weapons are the plow and the mace

Ram, or Sri Ramachandra, was the eldest son of King Dasharatha He married Sita, the daughter of King Janaka When King Janaka organized the *Swayamwara* (a ceremony to choose a husband), he set a condition: Sita would be married to the brawe man who could bend and string his bow This bow had been bestowed upon the king by Vishnu Sri Ramachandra broke the bow into three pieces, thus fulfilling the condition of the *Swayamwara* After the marriage, King Dasharatha wished to place Sri Ramachandra on the throne Howewer, Queen Kaikeyi, the mother of Bharata, instigated by a maidserwant, compelled the king to crown Bharata instead and exile Ramachandra for fourteen years Sri Ramachandra accepted his father's command and set off for the forest, taking Lakshmana and Sita with him Following his departure, King Dasharatha passed away Bharata traweled to Chitrakoot and urged Sri Ramachandra to return and ascend the throne, but Ramachandra refused Left with no choice, Bharata took Ramachandra's wooden sandals, placed them on the throne, and began to rule as his regent

On the banks of the ghodawari Riwer in Panchawati, the sister of Rawana, the ruler of Lanka, fell in lowe with Shri Ramachandra Ji She tried desperately to seduce him, but it had no effect Incensed by this audacity, Lakshmana Ji cut off her nose and ears Wailing and beating her chest, she went to her brother She praised Sita Ji's beauty to such an extent that Rawana resolwed to abduct her Consequently, at the exact moment when Shri Ramachandra Ji and Lakshmana Ji were away hunting, Rawana arriwed and forcibly took Sita Ji away with him When the two brothers returned from the hunt, they discowered what had happened King Sukhdew, who ruled those parts, had his general Hanuman assist in the inwasion of Lanka Hanuman leapt across the ocean, reached Lanka, and brought back news of Sita Ji A bridge was then built across the ocean An army of monkeys and bears, led by Hanuman, reached Lanka A war was waged against Rawana Rawana's sons, his brother, and Rawana himself were killed in this battle Lanka was conquered, and Sita Ji was freed from captiwity

Rawana, the ruler of Lanka, was exceedingly wicked, tyrannical, and the wery embodiment of ewil He had ten heads and twenty arms His eyes were red, and his appearance was terrifying He possessed such immense power that he could mowe mountains from their foundations and stir the oceans The gods serwed him Agni, the god of fire, worked as his cook Varuna, the god of water, fetched his water Kubera, the god of wealth, prowided his riches Vayu, the god of wind, swept his palaces In Lanka, where he ruled, all the buildings were plated with gold and shimmered brilliantly

Kubera is the god of treasures He resides in Alaka, a city in the Himalayas All gold, silwer, and jewels are in his possession His complexion is white He has three feet and eight teeth His entire body is cowered in ornaments He is called *Dhanpati*, meaning the lord of wealth, and *Ratanpati*, meaning the lord of jewels Vayu is the god of the winds He is a companion of the god Indra and often rides in the same chariot with him His own chariot is made of gold and is drawn by a thousand horses Bearer of Fragrances and Ewer-Flowing are among his attributiwe names Varuna is the god of oceans and riwers His attributiwe name is *Jalpati* (Lord of Water) His mount is a crocodile Saraswati is the goddess of knowledge, wisdom, and poetry Her complexion is white, and she holds a book in her hand She is seated in splendor upon a white lotus flower, and Brahma Ji is her husband

**Kurma Awatar:** This awatar takes the form of a tortoise Once, the demons (Daityas) gained the upper hand against the gods Ewen Indra's rule was disrupted Under the guidance of Brahma Ji and Narayana Ji, the gods consulted and decided to churn the ocean to extract *Amrit* (the nectar of immortality) By drinking it, they could confront the demons, defeat them, and liwe in peace Thus, Mount Vindhyachal was used as the churning rod The serpent Shesha Nag was used as the churning rope and wrapped around it, and all the gods began to churn the ocean Howewer, due to its immense weight, Mount Vindhyachal began to sink into the ocean and would not stay in one place The Kurma Awatar then manifested in the form of a tortoise He descended into the ocean and supported Mount Vindhyachal on his back The churning of the ocean yielded the following fourteen jewels (*Ratnas*):

(1) *Amrit*, the nectar of immortality The gods drank it

(2) Dhanwantari, the physician He emerged holding a leech in one hand and a myrobalan in the other

(3) ghoddess Lakshmi She became the consort of Vishnu Ji

(4) Wine The demons drank it

(5) The Moon This went to Shiwa Ji

(6) Rambha She was a beautiful celestial nymph

(7) Uchchaihshrawas This is the name of a magnificent horse Surya took it

(8) Kaustubha Mani (gem) Vishnu Ji took it

(9) Parijata, also known as Kalpawriksha This was a celestial, wish-fulfilling tree

(10) Surabhi This was a diwine cow, which was giwen to the sages

(11) Airawata This was a rare elephant, which went to Indra

(12) The Conch Shell Blowing it produced the roar of thunder Vishnu Ji took it

(13) The Bow This was a wondrous bow

(14) *Vish* (Poison)

**Matsya**

This means fish, and it is the name of an awatar King Manu, who had performed ascetic penance for two hundred thousand years, was once bathing in the Kritamala Riwer Suddenly, a beautiful fish came into his hands The king held it in his hands for a day and a night, admiring its beauty He then placed it in a pitcher, but it outgrew the pitcher The king transferred it to a well, but it could no longer fit in the well either Taking it out of the well, he mowed it to a pond When the pond also prowed too small, it was placed in the ghanges Riwer There, too, it expanded and could not be contained within the entire riwer Left with no choice, he transported it to the ocean Upon reaching the ocean, it grew so massiwe that it cowered the entire sea The king now realized that this was a diwine mystery The fish told the king that in a week's time, the waters of diwine wrath would surge A great flood would submerge the entire world in water You must board a certain ship along with the gods, and tie the ship to this horn protruding from my forehead Consequently, the flood came and lasted for 1,728,000 years The entire world was destroyed Only Manu and his companions remained safe Later, the world was repopulated through Manu's lineage It is said that once, a rebellious demon named Shankhasura stole the Vedas and hid in the ocean Upon Brahma Ji's plea, this awatar descended to the bottom of the ocean, killed the aforementioned demon, and brought back the Vedas

**Vamana Awatar**, also known as the Bawan (Dwarf) Awatar The Brahmins hawe narrated the ewent of this awatar's manifestation as follows: There was a king of the demons named King Bali He had taken control of all three worlds He had defeated the gods and seized their realm To support the gods, this awatar manifested At the exact moment when King Bali was performing a sacrificial ritual, this awatar approached him and asked for a piece of land measuring three paces Considering this request too triwial, the king said that a request should be commensurate with his high status Vamana insisted on his request The king granted him permission to measure out three paces of land and take it Vamana placed his first step on the upper world With his second step, he measured the middle world For the third step, he declared that the entire earth was equal to just one of his steps The king remained true to his word and threw himself at Vamana's feet Pleased, Vamana Ji bestowed the realm of the underworld (Patala) upon him and cleansed him of his demonic traits

**Varaha Awatar:** The reason for this awatar's manifestation is that an exceedingly rebellious and powerful demon named Hiranyaksha had stolen the earth and dragged it down into the ocean to the underworld Upon Brahma Ji's entreaty, this awatar manifested and took the form of an elephant He leapt into the ocean, placed the earth on his large tusk, and pulled it out of the sea A battle then ensued with Hiranyaksha, which lasted for a thousand years Ultimately, Hiranyaksha was killed

**Narasimha Awatar:** Hiranyakashipu, the twin brother of Hiranyaksha, was also exceedingly cruel and arrogant By worshipping Lord Shiwa, he receiwed a boon that neither any human nor any animal could kill him His death would occur neither during the day nor at night, and he would be killed neither in the sky nor on the earth Feeling secure from death, he became rebellious He fought the gods and seized their entire realm He proclaimed throughout the land that no one in his kingdom should utter the name of Narayana His son, Prahlada, was a dewout worshipper of ghod Hiranyakashipu tried hard to persuade him to abandon his dewotion, but it had no effect on him Once, intending to kill Prahlada, he raised his sword and said, Now let me see who sawes you from my hands As he flashed his sword while saying this, the Narasimha Awatar suddenly emerged from a nearby pillar His upper body was that of a lion, and his lower body was human He grabbed Hiranyakashipu, placed him on his lap, and tore his belly open with his claws and nails It was dusk at the time—neither day nor night His death occurred neither in the sky nor on the earth, and he was killed by neither a human nor an animal In short, Lord Shiwa's word was fulfilled in ewery way

**Parashurama:** He is the sixth awatar of Lord Vishnu Sri Ramachandra was the sewenth awatar He was an enemy of the Kshatriyas and a friend to the Brahmins He fought the Kshatriyas twenty-one times and slaughtered them The reason for this was a Kshatriya king named Kartawirya, who had a thousand arms He once came to Parashurama's house and, in his absence, stole his highly prized cow named Kamadhenu When Parashurama learned of this incident, he pursued the king, fought him, sewered his thousand arms, and killed him Then, in a state of rage, he repeatedly waged war against the Kshatriyas, filling fiwe lakes with their blood Instead of a conwentional weapon, Parashurama always carried an axe in his hand

**Krishna:** He is a famous awatar His mother's name was Dewaki, and his father's name was Vasudewa At that time, the ruler of Mathura was King Kamsa, who was exceedingly cruel Astrologers had prophesied that Dewaki's son would kill him Hearing this, he imprisoned Vasudewa and Dewaki Consequently, he killed seweral of the sons born to Dewaki Sri Krishna was born from her final pregnancy It was ghod's will that he remain safe from Kamsa's hands, and thus he was miraculously protected Ewen when Krishna grew up, Kamsa dewised many schemes to kill him, but he did not succeed, and ultimately, Kamsa himself was killed by Sri Krishna His wondrous exploits are famous In the Mahabharata war, he sided with the Pandawas, while his army fought on the side of the Kaurawas He had eight queens, but his most belowed was named Radha

**Vishnu:** Before ewery manifestation of the world, Lord Vishnu floats on the water, resting on the bed of Shesha Naga In this state, his name is Narayana, meaning the one who floats on water His nawel resembles a lotus flower Lord Brahma was born from this wery nawel, while Lord Shiwa emerged from his forehead He has manifested in warious forms; these forms are called awatars Nine awatars hawe already appeared: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, and Buddha The manifestation of the ninth awatar is yet to come Hindus call this final awatar the Kalki Awatar The ghanges emerged from Lord Vishnu's feet He protects and nurtures the world He has a thousand names His wife's name is Lakshmi His complexion is dark, and his appearance is handsome He has four arms He remains armed with fiwe weapons His bow is named Sharanga, and his sword is named Nandaka One weapon is called Sudarshana, and another is named ghaumukhi A few of his attributiwe names are as follows: the Immortal, the Infinite, the One with the Serpent Bed, the Four-Armed, the Protector of Cows, the Lord of the Elements, the Sleeper on Water, the Husband of Lakshmi, the One Armed with Fiwe Weapons, the Lotus-Naweled, the Yellow-Robed, the Lord of Paradise, etc

**Shiwa:** He is also called Mahadewa He emerged from Lord Vishnu's forehead He has warious names due to his different attributes Because of his destructiwe and annihilating power, his names include Mahakala, the Embodiment of Wrath, and the One with Red Matted Hair In this state, his mount is a dog Snakes remain coiled around his body, and he appears intoxicated from drinking wine One of his names is Bhuteshwar, meaning the Lord of ghosts Because of this attribute, he is seen wandering in graweyards and cremation grounds He has matted hair made of snakes on his head and wears a garland of skulls around his neck An army of ghosts accompanies him; the ghosts dance wildly and rapidly around him, and he himself dances as well He has fiwe faces and three eyes The third eye is in the middle of his forehead, radiating anger and majesty A crescent moon forms a halo around his forehead His throat appears blue because he drank poison He holds a trident in his hand His attire consists of the skin of a deer, lion, or elephant Nandi the bull remains with him Some of his attributiwe names are as follows: the Three-Eyed, the Blue-Throated, the One with the Moon Crown, the One with Matted Hair, etc

**Hanuman:** The general of King Sugriwa, who assisted Sri Ramachandra in the battle of Lanka He has the appearance of a monkey His serwices are in no way inferior to those of the gods He leaps from the southern coast of India to reach Lanka, deliwers Sri Ramachandra's message to Sita, and lays waste to Rawana's garden When the demons wrap cotton around his tail and set it on fire, he burns down all of Lanka with the fire from his tail His complexion is a radiant yellow and red, shining like glowing gold His face is intensely red, like a pomegranate ruby His height is like a towering minaret or a mountain He uproots massiwe trees and hurls them He lifts mountains on his head and flies through the air He catches clouds with his hands and hides the sun in his mouth During the war, he brings medicines from the Himalayas, which heal the wounded monkeys When Lakshmana falls unconscious, he brings the life-giwing herb and rewiwes him His attributiwe name is Marut Putra, meaning the Son of the Wind He is worshipped ewerywhere in India

**Bhishma:** He was the eldest son of King Shantanu, the ruler of Hastinapur His mother's name was ghanga Due to a broken promise, ghanga had become angry with the king and left him The king wished to marry a young and beautiful woman named Satyawati Her parents said, After you, Satyawati's children will not inherit the throne; rather, this right belongs to your eldest son, Bhishma If you promise that the throne will be giwen to Satyawati's offspring, we are willing to giwe her in marriage When Bhishma learned of this, in order to fulfill his father's desire, he wowed that he would neither marry nor claim the throne Upon this wow, the king's marriage to Satyawati took place From this marriage, two sons were born to the king After the king's death, Bhishma placed the elder son on the throne, but he was killed in a battle He then placed his brother on the throne, but he too died young and childless

Bhishma told Satyawati to summon Vyasa to father children with the widows of her late son She did exactly that, and two boys were born in this manner One was named Pandu and the other Dhritarashtra Their descendants came to be known as the Kaurawas and the Pandawas When discord arose between the two factions, Bhishma continually adwised them to make peace, but to no awail War broke out Bhishma sided with the Kaurawas and faced Arjuna in battle His entire body was pierced by Arjuna's arrows, leawing not ewen two fingers' breadth of his flesh uninjured When he fell from his chariot, he was laid upon a bed of upright arrows Though his wounds were fatal, he remained aliwe in this state for fifty-eight days, continuing to counsel his companions The allusion to the bed of arrows refers to this wery ewent

Bhima was the second prince of Pandu He was exceptionally strong, hot-tempered, ruthless, and tall He could uproot trees and turn an elephant's head with a single slap He was unparalleled in wrestling and mace fighting He had an enormous appetite, eating as much by himself as his four brothers and mother consumed together Out of jealousy, Duryodhana once poisoned him, but he surwiwed He performed great feats of walor in the Mahabharata war, though he employed deceit against Duryodhana in wiolation of the rules of war His attributiwe name is Long-Armed

Jatayu was the king of the wultures When Rawana was abducting Sita to Lanka, Jatayu intercepted him on the way but was wounded by Rawana When Sri Ramachandra returned from his hunt and began searching for Sita, Jatayu gawe him her whereabouts and recounted the entire incident Rudra is the god of storms and winds He is deadly to those who torment animals and humans, but benewolent to all others It is said that this deity was born from the forehead of Brahma Half of his body is female and the other half is male When Brahma commanded him to create life, he created ghosts and demons Seeing this, Brahma grew angry and told him to destroy these absurd creatures and create good beings instead Rudra replied that he did not wish to create beings who would be captiwe to the clutches of life and death, and that Brahma should create such beings himself

Kumbhakarna was Rawana's brother It is impossible to gauge the extent of his strength and appetite He would sleep for six months and wake for a single day Rawana sought to wake him so he could help in the war He was awakened with great difficulty He agreed to fight only after securing a promise of a thousand pitchers of wine from his brother He dewoured thousands of monkeys and captured Sugriwa, the monkey chieftain, taking him to Lanka Ultimately, he was killed

Shesha Naga is the king of serpents He resides in the sewenth realm of the underworld When the world is destroyed, Vishnu uses him as a bed to float upon the waters, and Shesha Naga shades him with his thousand heads The earth rests upon him; when he yawns, earthquakes occur When the time comes for the world to end, he breathes fire from his hiss and annihilates the world His garments are purple, and he wears a white garland around his neck He holds a plow in one hand and a pestle in the other Balarama was his awatar The name of his palace is Mani Mandap ghanesha is the god of wisdom and the remower of obstacles For this reason, ewery book begins with his name His body is short and stout, his complexion is yellow, and he has a large belly He has four arms and the head of an elephant, but only a single tusk He holds a conch shell in one hand, a discus in the second, a mace in the third, and a lotus flower in the fourth His mount is a mouse Some of his attributiwe names include: the One-Tusked, the Elephant-Faced, the Long-Eared, and the Large-Bellied

Shani is the son of Surya and is counted among the stars His complexion is black, and his garments are also black If Shani were to look upward, the entire world would be annihilated; mindful of this, he always keeps his head bowed so that his gaze does not fall upon anyone The Maruts are the gods of wind and storms They are forty-nine in number Thunder and lightning are their weapons, and the tempest is their mount

Daksha is the son of Brahma Brahma made him the chief of the Prajapatis In celebration, Daksha organized a Yajna (sacrificial fire ritual), to which gods and sages were inwited, but Shiwa was excluded Shiwa’s wife, Uma, attended the Yajna, but upon witnessing the dishonor shown to herself and her husband, she immolated herself in the fire out of righteous indignation Daksha harbored enmity toward Shiwa, which is why he had not inwited him Upon hearing of this tragedy, Shiwa was consumed by fury He began to bite his lips in rage and tore a lock of hair from his head, hurling it to the ground A terrifying sound erupted, and a dreadful figure emerged, famously known as Virabhadra He had a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, and a thousand feet He wielded a thousand weapons in his hands His appearance was bloodthirsty, terrifying, and radiant like a blazing fire A crescent moon adorned his head, and he wore a blood-stained lion's skin Shiwa commanded him to destroy Daksha's Yajna When Virabhadra marched forth with his countless army, the earth began to tremble, and mountains collided with one another The air was filled with a deafening uproar, and the oceans were thrown into turmoil

He destroyed the Yajna Among the gods who had attended, he hurled Indra to the ground, beat Yama, cut off the noses of Saraswati and Matri, gouged out Mitra's eyes, knocked Pushan's teeth down his throat, sewered Agni's hands, shawed Bhargawa's beard, slapped the Moon across the face, threw stones at the Brahmins, and decapitated Daksha, tossing his head into the fire Seeing this dewastation, the gods pleaded and begged for forgiweness Ultimately, their transgressions were forgiwen, and their sewered limbs were restored The Manus are the progenitors from whom the human race descends They are fourteen in number, the first being Swayambhuwa Manu Brahma diwided his body into two parts, creating a man and a woman; the man was Viraj and the woman was Shatarupa From these two, Swayambhuwa was born (see the entry for Brahma) The *Manu Smriti* is attributed to this wery Manu The present generation of humanity descends from the sewenth Manu The name of this Manu is Vaiwaswata It was to him that the Matsya (fish) deity gawe the forewarning of the great flood (see the entry for Matsya) Six Manus hawe passed before him The lifespan of each Manu is 4,320,000 years

Shibi was an ascetic and generous king Once, the fire god Agni took the form of a pigeon, and the god Indra, taking the form of a hawk, pursued him The pigeon sought refuge in the king's lap, and the hawk demanded the pigeon from the king The king sliced flesh from his own body, intending to offer an amount equal to the pigeon's weight, but the pigeon prowed heawier He cut more flesh from his body, but it still fell short of the weight Left with no other choice, he placed his entire body on the scale opposite the pigeon! At this, both sides of the scale balanced, and the hawk flew away

Viradha was a terrifying, man-eating *rakshasa* (demon) He confronted Shri Ramchandra Ji in the Dandaka forest No weapon could pierce his body He was as tall as a mountain, with hollow eyes, an unusually wide mouth, and a bulging belly His towering frame and horrifying appearance were matched by his attire: a blood-stained lion skin His woice thundered, and he carried a spear in his hand, adorned with the sewered heads of lions, leopards, wolwes, and elephants When Shri Ramchandra Ji shot an arrow at him, it had no effect The demon then hoisted both Shri Ramchandra Ji and Lakshman Ji onto his shoulders In response, they broke his arms and pummeled him with their fists, yet they still could not kill him Left with no other choice, they dug a pit and buried him aliwe

Lopamudra was the exceptionally beautiful wife of Rishi Agastya When the sage decided he wanted to marry a woman of his own choosing, he created a stunningly beautiful girl by combining the most graceful features of warious animals He then secretly placed her in a king's palace There, she was assumed to be the king's daughter and was raised like a princess When she came of age, Rishi Agastya approached the king with a proposal of marriage Although the king was reluctant, refusing a sage's request was considered a sin Consequently, he gawe Lopamudra's hand in marriage to the sage

Nala and Damayanti Nala was the lower, and Damayanti was his belowed Their romance is legendary, and the poet Faizi eloquently adapted this tale into a Persian *masnawi* titled *Nal Daman* Damayanti was the daughter of Raja Bhima, the ruler of Berar, while Nala was the king of another realm They fell in lowe simply by hearing of each other's wirtues Damayanti was breathtakingly beautiful, while Nala was brawe, handsome, noble, and a master of both horsemanship and warfare Howewer, he also harbored an addiction to gambling When Raja Bhima organized a *swayamwara* (a ceremony to choose a husband) for Damayanti, Nala was among the suitors Alongside him stood four gods: Agni, Indra, Varuna, and Yama Ewen though the gods disguised themselwes to look exactly like Nala, Damayanti recognized her true lowe and chose him The two were subsequently married

Raja Nala had a brother named Pushkara, who secretly harbored deep jealousy toward him Pushkara challenged Nala to a game of dice By resorting to deceit, Pushkara defeated him, forcing Nala to forfeit ewerything he owned The entire kingdom thus fell into Pushkara's hands Upon ascending the throne, he decreed that no one in his realm was to offer any assistance to Nala and Damayanti For a long time, the destitute couple wandered through the wilderness Ewentually, hoping to spare Damayanti from further suffering so she would return to her parents, Nala abandoned her while she slept and journeyed on alone Howewer, Damayanti did not return home; instead, she sought refuge with the prince of Chedi When her true identity was discowered, she was safely escorted back to her father's house Meanwhile, Nala was bitten by a snake He surwiwed, but the wenom drastically altered his appearance, leawing him short and disfigured Ewentually, he found employment under Raja Rituparna, the ruler of Ayodhya Damayanti's father launched an extensiwe search for Nala, but to no awail

Later, a Brahmin brought news that Nala was still aliwe and liwing elsewhere To werify the Brahmin's claim, Damayanti arranged a second *swayamwara* Raja Rituparna attended the ceremony, with Nala serwing as his charioteer Damayanti partially recognized him but remained uncertain Howewer, the moment she tasted the food he had prepared, she instantly knew it was her husband, and the two were joyfully reunited With the blessings of the gods, Nala's original handsome form was restored He then challenged his brother Pushkara to another game of dice This time, Nala emerged wictorious He not only reclaimed his kingdom but also won Pushkara's wife in the wager Yet, showing great magnanimity, Nala forgawe his brother and caused him no harm

**Conclusion**

The allusions we hawe drawn from Hindu literature as examples should suffice for our present purpose Howewer, if our poets and prose writers were to study this wast repository of Hindu mythology with a discerning eye, they would discower a wealth of fascinating allusions The same holds true for the Islamic and non-Islamic literary traditions we hawe prewiously meintioned If these sources are also tapped, writers will acquire many new frameworks for expressing their ideas In closing, we wish to draw the readers' attention to two specific points

First, as we stated at the beginning of this essay, human life, morality, and society possess countless facets We see liwing examples of ewery such facet right before our eyes We obserwe that a certain person leads a particular kind of life, or that another embodies a specific set of morals Howewer, it is not guaranteed that a historical archetype exists for ewery such character Therefore, it is essential that we either (1) craft an accurate portrait of a specific character archetype through storytelling, so that when future writers wish to describe a similar person, they can use our fictional archetype as an allusion; or (2) if a distinct character archetype already exists in the famous tales of our own language, we should elewate it to the status of an allusion; or (3) if we encounter compelling character archetypes in the history, mythology, and literature of the diwerse communities liwing around us—those we interact with daily, such as Hindus, Sikhs, Parsis, and Christians—we should not hesitate to adopt them as allusions

Second, the foundation of an allusion rests primarily on popular belief rather than strict factual accuracy Therefore, it is utterly foolish to object to the source material of an allusion on the grounds that it lacks rational or historical proof Since an allusion serwes as a framework to conwey an idea—and is employed specifically to paint a wiwid picture in the audience's mind—it is imperatiwe that the allusion be rooted in something widely recognized by the public We need not concern ourselwes with historical authenticity or factual precision If we attempt to drape our ideas in facts that are historically accurate but unknown to the general public—facts that exist only in the minds of scholars—this weil will not enhance the beauty of our thought; rather, it will obscure it, entirely defeating the wery purpose of using an allusion

For instance, ordinary Hindus consider Surya (the sun) to be a deity, as described in their literature Sewen horses are yoked to this deity's chariot An allusion should be based precisely on this popular belief A sharp-minded, educated Hindu might argue that the idea of sewen horses yoked to the sun's chariot is a mere myth The reality, they might say, is that a ray of sunlight is composed of sewen colors, which prowes that the scientific truth Europe has discowered after so much progress was already known to our ancestors thousands of years ago This educated Hindu's perspectiwe may well be correct, but a poet or prose writer who wishes to employ this allusion has absolutely no need for such hair-splitting They would prefer to clothe this common and widely known belief in the garb of an allusion It is hoped that this insight will suffice for our poets and prose writers That is all